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What is the name of the totality of residential buildings, also residential premises, regardless of the form of ownership? What is a collection of irregularities in the earth's surface called? What is the name of the set of artificial walls

ventilation called a set of measures and devices necessary to ensure a given state of the air in the working premises. Among the sanitary measures, ventilation occupies one of the main places in the system of improving working conditions in the workplace. Thanks to ventilation, in many cases it is possible to achieve a reduction in the dust content of the air and its pollution with harmful gases and vapors, and to normalize microclimatic conditions.

Types of industrial ventilation

By means of air movement, ventilation is divided into natural and mechanical ventilation. Depending on the capacity of air exchange, ventilation can be local and about general exchange.

By p r i n c e ventilation units subdivided into:

1) exhaust (designed to remove air), which in turn can be local and general; 2) supply air (carry out air supply), which are subdivided into local (air showers, curtains, oases) and general (scattered or concentrated inflow).

At natural ventilation air exchange occurs due to the temperature difference, and consequently, the specific gravity of the air inside the production room and outside it, i.e. they work under the influence of thermal pressure and due to the influence of wind (wind pressure).

The effect of these sources is the greater, the greater the temperature difference in the upper and lower zones of the room and the greater the height of the latter.

The temperature difference between the air inside the room (where it is higher) and outside causes the flow of cold air into the room and the displacement of warm air from it. When the wind acts from the windward side of the building, excess pressure is created and fresh air enters the room. A reduced pressure is created on the windward side of the building, as a result of which warm or polluted air is removed from the room. These phenomena are widely used for natural ventilation in workshops with excessive heat generation. However, large air exchanges created by natural ventilation do not always provide the proper hygienic effect.



With a large area of ​​leaks in the outer fences industrial buildings, opening gates and doors in the cold season, due to thermal and wind pressure, drafts and hypothermia of the working area may occur, and if the workplace is far from the places where outside air enters in summer, on the contrary, conditions of insufficient ventilation of the working area may be created. In order to ensure normal natural ventilation, a special organization of air exchange and its management is required. Natural ventilation of industrial premises can be unorganized and organized th.

With unorganized ventilation (ventilation), air enters and leaves through windows, vents, special openings, as well as through leaks in external fences (infiltration). Organized regulated natural ventilation of industrial premises is called aeration. It is carried out with the help of specially created structural elements of industrial buildings - aeration lamps.

In the absence of light and aeration lamps in the ceilings of buildings, natural ventilation can be somewhat improved with the help of special channels or shafts that operate under the influence of thermal pressure. To do this, the mines are equipped with special nozzles - deflectors (Fig. 13). The action of the deflectors is based on the fact that the wind, blowing around the circumference of the nozzle, creates a rarefaction in it, due to which the deflector contributes to the suction of air through the shaft. For a complete

to use the wind pressure of the mine, it is necessary to place it on the highest sections of the roof. Shafts with deflectors are used to remove polluted or overheated air from rooms of a relatively small volume (cowsheds, pigsties, agricultural workshops), as well as for localized removal of hot gases from blacksmith forges, ovens, etc.

Most in a rational way natural air exchange is aeration. It is used for

ventilation of workshops with large heat surpluses, contributing to the removal of not only excess heat, but with it harmful vapors and gases. Aerated buildings are equipped with three rows of openings (1-3), equipped with special transoms. In the walls of buildings, openings are arranged at two levels: at a height of 1 - 1.5 m from the floor (1) and at a height of 4-6 m from the floor (2). In the upper part of the building (usually in the ceiling), glazed light-aeration lanterns are equipped, the openings of which are equipped with transoms that can open to the required amount (3).

AT summer time fresh air enters through the open lower openings (1) and is removed through the upper ones (2). For a diagram of the movement of air flows during calm, see fig. 14, a, b and in windy weather. AT winter time the intake of outside air occurs through the upper openings in the walls. The height is taken in such a way that the cold outside air, descending to the working area, has time to heat up sufficiently due to mixing with warm air premises. Thus hypothermia of workers is prevented.

Air exchange is regulated by changing the position of the transom flaps. When calculating aeration, the required area of ​​​​openings is determined. The calculation is made for summer time with calm, as the most unfavorable for aeration.

The action of the wind usually favorably affects the air exchange, increasing it. However, under certain wind directions, it blows into the upper openings of the building's skylights, as a result of which the outside air flows mix with dust and gases and enter the working area. To eliminate this phenomenon, so-called non-blown lanterns equipped with windshields are arranged. The air entering the workshop during aeration can be cooled by fine spraying of water using nozzles in the plane of the supply openings.

Evaporating, water lowers the temperature of the surrounding air and somewhat increases its humidity. The use of artificial cooling of the supply air of aeration devices is especially important in the southern regions of the country.

Aerated buildings must meet certain architectural and construction requirements. The building must be free around the perimeter to allow outside air to enter it through the aeration openings. As an exception, an extension is allowed, but not more than 40% of the length of the longitudinal walls.

Best conditions aerations are created in single-span one-story buildings of sufficient height. It is allowed to place aerated workshops in the upper floors of multi-storey buildings.

Great difficulties are encountered in the natural ventilation of multi-span buildings, the width of which can reach 100-200 m or more. Under these conditions, the supply of fresh, unpolluted air to workplaces located in the center of the room is practically impossible. In these cases, aeration is carried out through special lanterns designed by Baturin, in which the inflow and exhaust

disconnected (at the same time they are uninflated).

It should be borne in mind that aeration of multi-span buildings with inflow through openings in the roof with a small excess of heat in winter can lead to hypothermia of the working area. In such rooms, mechanical ventilation with air heating should be provided. Reliable mechanisms must be equipped to control aeration. The advantage of aeration is the possibility

implementation of large air exchanges (up to several million cubic meters per hour). The device of the aeration system is cheaper mechanical systems ventilation, but much more difficult to manage, as it depends on weather conditions: the amount of air exchange can vary significantly depending on wind speed, temperature regime inside the building and other conditions. As a result, in the summer, ventilation efficiency can be significantly reduced due to an increase in the outdoor temperature, especially in calm weather. With aeration, it is not always possible to supply fresh air for all jobs, especially remote ones.

A serious obstacle to the use of aeration is that, along with excess heat, the air of the corresponding working rooms also contains harmful vapors, gases and aerosols, the release of which into the outside atmosphere without purification is unacceptable.

When using aeration, cleaning of ventilation air is not possible.

mechanical ventilation. Unlike natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation allows

pre-treatment of the supply air (cleaning, humidification, heating or cooling) and cleaning of dust, gases and other impurities of the exhaust air before it is released into the atmosphere. Of the other advantages of mechanical ventilation, it should be noted such as uniform operation all year round in the required volumes, regardless of the external weather and climatic conditions, as well as the possibility of supplying air to any point of the working room and removing air from any point; if necessary, the magnitude of air exchanges can be changed within significant limits.

In the fight against industrial hazards, the leading place is occupied by local mechanical exhaust ventilation. It is designed to capture and remove polluted air directly from the places of formation or exit of harmful emissions. The effectiveness of local

exhaust ventilation depends on the rational choice and perfection of the design of the local suction air inlet, the degree of shelter and the adequacy of the vacuum created by the installation, and other conditions. The elements of the exhaust installation are the suction (air inlet), through which air is removed from the room, air ducts; fan; equipment for air purification from dust and gases; air ejection device - exhaust shaft.

The base is the layers of soil that lie under the foundation, as well as to the sides of it.

Foundations are either natural or artificial.

The thickness of the soil lying under the building, and perceiving the load from it is called natural basis.

If the natural soil mass is not able to perceive the loads from the building being erected and requires work to strengthen it, then such a foundation is called artificial.

  1. Natural bases, their properties.

When erecting buildings on a natural basis:

The soils lying in the thickness of this base must have the necessary compressibility;

Soils must have sufficient bearing capacity;

Soils should not have heaving properties;

Soils must withstand the effects of groundwater, which, by dissolving some rocks, removes the smallest particles from their thickness, as a result, the porosity of the base appears, which reduces its bearing capacity;

Soil characteristics:

    rocky- in the form of a continuous or fractured array of quartzites, limestones, sandstones, such soils are practically incompressible, not subject to heaving and are excellent bases.

    coarse clastic- in the form of layers of large stone and pebbles, these soils are slightly compressible, not heaving, waterproof and are good bases.

    Sandy- depending on the size of the sand particles, the soils are divided into: gravelly, coarse, medium, fine, dusty. Gravelly, coarse and medium sands quickly compact under load, do not swell when frozen, are strong and reliable. Fine and silty sands, with an increase and subsequent freezing, become heaving and their bearing capacity decreases.

    clayey- in a dry and low-moisture state, they are able to perceive the load on the building, but when moistened, the bearing capacity of these soils decreases; such soils are characterized by long-term settlement under load and swelling during freezing;

    loesslike- in their natural state they have pores in the form of vertical tubes; in a dry state, they have sufficient bearing capacity, but when moistened, their structure is destroyed and under the action of a load they form subsidence;

    artificial grounds. If the foundation soils within the compressible thickness do not have the necessary bearing capacity (filled peaty soils, loose sandy to loamy soils with a high content of organic residues, etc.), they are artificially strengthened or foundations are used that transfer loads to the underlying solid soils, in particular , pile foundations. The choice of pile foundations or a method of strengthening the soil is made by a technical and economic comparison various options foundations and foundations. In mass civil construction, as a rule, two types of artificial bases are used: the base created by soil compaction, and the base created by its fixing.

    Foundations, their classification.

    By constructive schemes:

tape, columnar, solid, pile;

    by material:

natural stone, rubble concrete, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wood;

    by nature of work:

rigid (working in compression) and flexible (working in compression and bending);

    by depth:

shallow (up to 5 m) and deep (more than 5 m);

    Foundations are tape.

In the form of a continuous strip under the bearing walls of the building.

FL (reinforced concrete), length - 3000 mm, width - 1600 mm

FBS (concrete), block height - 580 mm (280 additional), width - 300, 400, 500, 600 mm

Seam - 20 mm

    The foundations are columnar.

It consists of a sub-column, in which a glass for the column is arranged, a slab part, consisting of steps. (1,2,3)

    The foundations are piled and solid.

A solid foundation (in the form of a solid monolithic reinforced concrete slab) is arranged under the entire building area; such foundations are erected under significant loads or weak and heterogeneous soils. They provide a uniform settlement of the building and protect the basement from water backwater.

The pile foundation consists of piles and grillage.

Classification by nature of work:

    Resistant piles (transmit the load from the building to the underlying array of dense soils);

    Hanging piles (compact the soil and transfer the load from the building to it);

by material: metal, wood and reinforced concrete.

for constructive solutions:

    Drive-in (made at the enterprise, placed in the ground with the help of mechanisms);

    Prismatic (reinforced concrete, solid section, section size: 200x200 and 300x300, length: 4.5-12 m);

    Prismatic (with a round plane, section size: 300x300, 250x250, length: 3-8 m);

    Tubular (reinforced concrete, diameter: 400-800 mm, length: 4-12 m)

    Wooden (from softwood logs);

    Pyramidal (with an upper section of 300x300, inclined side faces up to 14 °, length: 5-12 m);

    printed (from monolithic concrete, laid in pre-drilled wells and combined on top with a grillage);

by depth:

    short (3-6 m)

    long (more than 6 m)

General information about structural systems of buildings

SECTION 2.1. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS OF BUILDINGS

Ensuring the spatial rigidity of buildings.

The building and its elements must have:

Strength - the ability to perceive loads

Stability - the ability of a building to resist the effects of horizontal loads

Spatial rigidity - the ability of individual elements and the entire building not to deform under the action of applied forces.

In frameless buildings, spatial rigidity is provided by the device:

Internal cross walls and walls staircases associated with longitudinal (external) walls

Interfloor enterprises connecting the stand with each other In frame buildings with a device

A multi-tiered frame formed by a combination of columns, crossbars and ceilings, which is a geometrically unchanging system.

Stiffening walls installed between columns

Walls of stairwells and elevator shafts associated with frame structures

Ground interface of frame elements at joints and nodes.

The structural system of a building is a set of vertical and horizontal load-bearing structural elements that are interconnected in a certain way and ensure the strength and stability of the building.

Structural elements of a building (foundations, walls, individual supports, ceilings) that perceive all types of loads arising in the building and acting on it from the outside, and transferring these loads to the foundation soils, are called load-bearing frame of the building. Depending on the combination of elements that form the supporting frame, the following structural systems of buildings are distinguished:

Frameless with load-bearing walls (wall);

frame;

With an incomplete frame (combined).

Structural solutions for the elements and systems of the building as a whole are selected on the basis of alternative design and a feasibility study of their main technical and economic indicators.

Frameless system is a system that combines external and internal walls and floor slabs resting on them into a single bearing frame. The frameless system, in turn, is subdivided:

A system with longitudinal walls located along the long front side of the building and parallel to it (there may be two, three, four) (Fig. 2.1);

A system with transverse bearing walls, with a narrow step (4.2 - 4.8 m), with a wide step (more than 4.8 m), with mixed steps (Fig. 2.2);

System with longitudinal and transverse walls (cross-wall with simultaneous support of floor panels along the contour). The size of the floor panels in this case is equal to the size of the spatial cell between the four walls (Fig. 2.3).


In buildings with a frameless system, external load-bearing walls combine two functions: load-bearing and enclosing.

Rice. 2.1. Building with longitudinal load-bearing walls:

A - axonometry; B - floor plan; B - floor plan; 1 - floor slab; 2 - external load-bearing wall; 3- internal longitudinal load-bearing wall; 4 - transverse self-supporting wall

Rice. 2.2. Building with transverse load-bearing walls:

A - axonometry; B - floor plan; B - floor plan; 1 floor slab; 2 - external load-bearing wall; 3- internal longitudinal load-bearing wall; 4 - outer longitudinal self-supporting wall



Rice. 2.3. A building with longitudinal and transverse load-bearing walls at the same time (supporting floor panels along the contour):

A - axonometry; B - floor plan; B - floor plan; 1- floor panel; 2 - outer longitudinal load-bearing wall; 3 - outer transverse load-bearing wall; 4- internal transverse load-bearing wall; 5- internal longitudinal load-bearing wall

What is the branch of material production that ensures the creation and reconstruction of industrial, domestic, social, cultural and housing facilities?

Name what is carried out within the framework of a single sectoral system, taking into account the national interests, the interests of the regions and local self-government, which is associated with the differentiation of state property (national and local) and the assignment of construction complex and housing and communal services to local governments?

Name what ensures the development of other sectors of the economy, the socio-cultural sphere, the most diverse public and individual needs for relevant products, and is the most important guarantor of the national security of society and the state?

Name what is meant by the historically established economy of the whole country or the totality of sectors and types of material production and the non-productive sphere, or the totality of economic relations that develop in the system of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods?

Topic 23. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT.

Name who carries out intersectoral management?

a) Ministry of Culture;

b) Ministry of Education;

c) Ministry of Economy;

d) Ministry of Health;

a) national economy;

b) agriculture;

c) industry;

d) trade;

2. Continue the sentence. Branches are distinguished in the national economy. Which include...:

a) culture;

b) housing and communal services;

c) education;

d) customs control;

3. Continue the sentence. The basis of the economy, the economic system of the Republic of Belarus is ...:

a) education;

b) trade;

c) property;

d) finance;

4. Continue the sentence. Economic management issues are under the jurisdiction of ...:

a) economic committees; departments of energy, fuel and communications of regional executive committees;

b) health departments of district executive committees;

c) health departments of local administrations of districts in Minsk;

d) finance committee;

a) agriculture;

b) industry;

c) finance;

d) trade;

a) industry;

b) management of construction and housing and communal services;

c) communication management;

d) agriculture;

a) trade;

b) economics;

c) construction;

d) industry;

8. What area covers the management of the housing stock and public utilities, their maintenance, construction and repair?



a) industrial;

b) agricultural;

c) construction;

d) housing;

a) housing stock;

b) building fund;

c) industry;

d) communications;

10. Name the republican government bodies in the field of housing and communal services and construction:

a) the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs;

b) the Ministry of Housing and Communal Services of the Republic of Belarus and the Ministry of Architecture and Construction of the Republic of Belarus;

c) the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Agriculture and Food;

d) the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Health;

Any building is an interconnected system of architectural and structural elements, each of which performs a specific function. These elements can also be called the constituent parts of a building.

All structural elements can be divided into load-bearing and enclosing. The load-bearing elements include those parts of the building that perceive the load from other elements lying above, as well as the payload (the weight of people, furniture, equipment). Enclosing (self-supporting) structures are called, which perceive the load only from their own weight. These are non-bearing walls (including internal partitions), as well as building covering (roofing). External brick walls can be non-bearing if the structural system of the building is not wall, but frame: in this case, the floors are supported by pillars, and the brickwork, supported by the floor of its floor, performs only a protective function. The load-bearing external elements of the building also play the role of a fence, protecting the internal space of the building from the effects of the external environment. Internal enclosing elements (partitions) perform the function of dividing the space. External enclosing structures, in addition, perceive the load from snow, wind and other atmospheric phenomena, and therefore must be stronger than similar internal structures.

The set of load-bearing structural elements of a building is called bearing frame. These elements provide strength, rigidity and stability of the building. The supporting frame includes both vertical (walls, pillars, columns) and horizontal (floor) elements. Stationary stairs and the roof are also load-bearing structures.

The carrier frame must be supported by foundation- a structural element that receives loads from the supporting frame (which, in turn, receives loads from non-bearing parts of the building and from environmental influences, as well as a payload) and transfers them to the soil base (soil layers that take the load from the building or structure) . The lower plane of the foundation, with which it rests on the soil base, is called the sole. The upper plane of the foundation, on which the walls or pillars rest, is called the edge. The foundation is the foundation of the building, the most important structural part.

Foundations are tape, columnar, slab (solid) and pile. It is possible to arrange a strip or column foundation from a brick (Fig. 14).

Figure 14. Types of brick foundation: a) tape; b) columnar

Strip foundation is a solid wall (tape). It can be made of reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic), rubble concrete or brick. Strip foundations are usually used in buildings with a wall bearing system. In section (in cross section) strip foundation has, as a rule, the shape of a rectangle, but at high loads on the base it is performed in steps.

Column Foundation- these are poles installed in key places (corners of the building, intersections bearing walls) and along the walls with a certain maximum interval and fastened along the top with strapping beams. Such foundations are used in frame or wall-type buildings with a low weight of structures (for example, under wooden walls). The pillars can be made of wood, brick, rubble concrete or reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic).

Pile and slab foundations used in buildings with a large load on the base or in difficult soil conditions. These two types of foundations can be combined (when the building rests on a solid slab, installed on piles hammered or poured into the ground, located throughout the base area).

plinth – top part foundation located above ground level. The basement, like underground structures, needs increased resistance to moisture, but it can be made of a different material than the underground part of the foundation. For the construction of brick foundations and plinths, only full-bodied ceramic bricks of high grades are used. If a column foundation is used in the building, the plinth can be made in the form of a fence - a wall or bricks or other material located between the foundation pillars protruding above the ground, the soil and the strapping beams.

The plinth can be made recessed relative to the wall or, on the contrary, protruding beyond its plane. A plinth flush with the wall is usually not suitable, since in this case it is more difficult to waterproof between the wall and the plinth. If the plinth protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, the protruding part of its edge is called a cordon.

Around the basement at the level of the ground base, a blind area is performed - an inclined element to drain water from the basement and foundation.

Walls- a vertical load-bearing element of a building, having an elongated (extended) shape in plan, enclosing the premises in the building from the external environment and from each other. Walls can be external and internal, load-bearing and self-supporting. Internal self-supporting walls are called partitions; they divide the space of the building within the floor into rooms. There are also non-load-bearing (curtain) walls made from prefabricated (factory-made) panels hung on floors. The walls are made of stone, brick, reinforced concrete, concrete blocks and wood. For partitions, brick, wood, reinforced concrete or drywall are used.

The side of the wall facing the street, together with the totality of structural and decorative elements called the front of the building. Distinguish between the main facade (facing the street, square, etc.), side and courtyard facades.

Pillars, columns, racks, pylons- vertical load-bearing elements of the frame system, which are free-standing supports.

corners walls - the place where the ends of two walls meet. Most often this connection is at a right angle, other angles are much less common in projects.

Partition- the part of the wall located between two openings. According to the method of laying, a brick wall resembles a pillar. The pier adjacent to the corner of the wall is called the corner pier, the rest of the piers are ordinary.

Cornice- a ledge in the upper part of the wall, designed to protect the walls from water flowing from the roof. This element can also play a decorative role. In brickwork, the cornice is formed by laying several rows with an overlap. The eaves can be arranged in the level floors- for additional protection of the "floor - walls" node and for the architectural and artistic design of the facade (with the number of storeys). Interfloor stepped cornice is also called interfloor profiled traction. Instead of a cornice, a corbel can be arranged between floors - a horizontal protruding element of a simple rectangular profile. When constructing interfloor cornices, the upper cornice located under the roof is called the main, or crowning, cornice. Small cornices, called sandriks, can be located above door or window openings. The cornice, located under the window opening, is called window sill thrust. The distance over which the cornice protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, as well as the protruding part itself, is called the overhang of the cornice.

opening- an opening in a wall or ceiling to accommodate a door, window, hatch or ladder. The top and side faces of a door or window opening are called slopes. A wall without openings is called a blank wall.

openings in brick wall lintels are sure to complete - metal or reinforced concrete (with dimensions that are multiples of the brick size) beams that support the masonry above the opening. The lintel can also be arched, while it can be made of brickwork. A straight (not arched) brick lintel is obtained only with preliminary reinforcement and using formwork.

Windows and doors (filling window and doorways) refer to the enclosing elements of the building. Windows serve to illuminate and ventilate the premises, doors - to communicate the premises with each other and with the external environment.

overlap- a horizontal load-bearing structure supported by walls or pillars (columns) and bearing the weight of partitions, equipment, people and furniture. The enclosing role of floors is reduced to dividing the building into floors, as well as to protecting it from the external environment from below and from above. The overlap that separates two ordinary floors is called interfloor, or interfloor. The overlap that separates the first floor of the building from the basement or soil base is called the basement, or above the basement. The attic is the floor that separates the top floor from the attic. If there is no attic in the building, the upper floor performs the function of the roof structure. The floor may be a solid slab (or a combination of slabs) or beam system. There are also ceilings of an unusual shape: arched, vaulted, etc. In individual construction, such ceilings are a rarity in our time.

On top of the load-bearing structures of the floors on the operated floors, a floor covering is arranged from the selected material (boards, ceramic tiles, linoleum, laminate, parquet, etc.), from below - ceiling covering.

Balconies, loggias, bay windows are also architectural and structural elements of the building. The balcony is an open area protruding beyond the plane of the wall (without walls, but with a fence) at the level of one of the floors. The bay window, like the balcony, protrudes beyond the surface of the wall, but has a capital (wall) fence, which can be arranged at the level of several floors, uniting them. The loggia does not protrude from the plane outer wall and is a platform open from the side of the facade.

Brickwork the building will definitely be combined with other materials: wood, reinforced concrete, metal. Since these materials make up different structural elements of buildings and have different specifications, often between masonry and other material is necessary quality heat- and waterproofing.

Roof- a set of load-bearing elements on which the coating (roof) rests, as well as this coating itself. The roof is the top waterproofing part of the roof. The load-bearing elements of the roof are trusses, rafters, beams, arches (depending on the type of construction). Roofing includes the base under the roof (battens, insulating materials) and roofing(tile, slate, roofing metal, etc.).

The roof performs both a load-bearing and enclosing function. The design must provide for the removal of atmospheric precipitation from the building. Water drainage can be external and internal. In individual construction, an external drainage system is most often used, consisting of gutters, funnels and pipes through which water enters storm sewer without damaging walls and foundations. Internal drainage is more complicated in the device; it is usually used in buildings with flat roof and large building area.

Roofs are flat (with a slope of up to 2.5%) and pitched. Pitched differ in the number and shape of slopes (from single-slope to complex multi-slope and domed).

Coating- enclosing element of structures located on top of the load-bearing elements of the roof and performing the function of protection from precipitation and other environmental influences.