Syntax units. Basic units of syntax - Basic concepts of syntax, Syntax. Syntax is a special section of language science

07.08.2020

Syntax, as an area of the grammatical structure of a language, combines within its boundaries such units that either directly form a message or serve as components of a structure that forms it. Such syntactic units are a phrase, a simple sentence and a complex sentence. The scope of syntax also includes message units that do not have their own grammatical characteristics and are functionally combined with grammatical sentences.

1) morphological significance the form itself is objective;

4) opening (initial) position of the form of wines. n., in sentences with a similar lexical composition, intended for a form with a subjective meaning (cf .: The patient is trembling; The child is in a chill; The young man is in doubt, doubts);

The form of the word (and the word form, that is, the form of a single concrete word) is involved in the formation of phrases, simple and complex sentences, all types of reporting units. The form of the word has rich constructive possibilities. The rules of its functioning in certain syntactic positions are closely connected with lexical semantics: with the lexical meaning of a word appearing in a given form, and with its lexico-semantic environment. As part of a phrase and sentence, the syntactic rules for the use of certain forms of words are often limited lexico-semantically.

Russian grammar. § 1708

Basic units of syntax

A construction formed on the basis of the implementation of subordinate relations predetermined by the lexical and grammatical properties of a word is called a phrase. A phrase is that syntactic association that is formed by a combination of a significant word and the form of another significant word on the basis of a subordinate connection. A phrase consists of a significant word and a form of another significant word (or forms of other significant words). The main (core) component in it is the word (see above), the subordinate (dependent) component is the form (forms) of the word. The meaning of a phrase is the relationship between its components that underlies its formation.

5) regular correlation of such wines. n. with the form of them. n. (see examples in paragraph 4). The result of the interaction of all these factors is such wines. n. in the sentence acquires the meaning of the subject of an involuntary state. In constructions like Give me a smoke; Bring something to eat (colloquial) the grammatical semantics of the infinitive, the lexical meaning of the verb, the position in which the infinitive appears with the transitive verb with the meaning interact. a specific action directed at an object; as a result of the interaction of all these factors, the infinitive acquires an objective meaning equal to the meaning of wines. n. on occasions such as bring food; Give me a cigarette. All phenomena associated with the syntactic possibilities of word forms, with the rules for their use and functioning, refer to the syntax of the word form.

Syntactic units it is customary to call stable unities that have a certain syntactic structure, meaning and function.

Full list syntactic units is given in the "Grammar of the Russian literary language" (1980). The syntactic units are:

1) word, word form;

2) phrase;

3) predicative unit;

4) a simple sentence;

5) complex sentence;

6) a complex syntactic whole;

Let us briefly describe each of these units.

Word is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning.

word form- the specific use of the word, the specific implementation of the word in speech. The form of a word is, first of all, an element of a phrase. For example, buy a book, an interesting book. However, its role and purpose are not limited to this. A word form can act as a “building element” not only of a phrase, but also as part of a sentence, when it extends the sentence itself or participates in building its basis, for example: It's damp in the forest; Snow is falling outside the windows; Moscow in festive attire. It follows from this that the word form participates in the construction of the sentence either directly or through the phrase.

The existence of a word form as a syntactic unit is confirmed by the extreme case of its functioning, when the word form is transformed into a sentence, i.e. into a unit of a different syntactic level. For example: On the ship, on the way from Palestine to Odessa. Among the deck passengers - a lot of Russian men and women(Bunin).

phrase- this is a semantic and grammatical association of two or more significant words or word forms based on a subordinate connection. For example: bright audience, article on lexicology, man of average height, read aloud. Being, along with the word, an element of constructing a sentence, the phrase acts as one of the main syntactic units. Some grammarians (F.F. Fortunatov, M.N. Peterson) defined syntax as the doctrine of phrases.

The phrase is a syntactic unit of the pre-communicative (pre-propositional) level, which serves as a means of nomination.

The phrase is built according to a certain pattern: noun + agreed adjective, verb + controlled word form etc.

The components of the phrase are: 1) the main word (or core), i.e. a grammatically independent word and 2) a dependent word that formally obeys the requirements emanating from the main word ( desk go to work, run barefoot and etc.).

Predicative unit is a syntactic construction in which objective modality and syntactic tense are formally expressed, i.e. predicativity.

Consider two cases:

father's arrival– time and inclination cannot be determined

Father has arrived- you can determine the time (past time) and inclination (express).

Objective modality is the relation of what is reported to reality.

Has your father arrived?

- My father has arrived.

A predicative unit becomes a sentence if it acquires a communicative function.

Offer- this is the minimum unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word), which has a certain semantic and intonational completeness.

The concept of grammatical organization includes the idea of the main feature of a sentence as a syntactic unit - predicativity.

Predicativity- this is an expression by linguistic means of the relationship of the content of the utterance to reality (its reality or unreality, possibility or impossibility, necessity or probability). The grammatical means of expressing predicativity are the categories of tense, person, mood, and Various types intonation (intonation of the message, question, motivation, etc.).

The essential feature of the proposal is modality , because, expressing his thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, the speaker at the same time expresses his attitude to the content of the statement (its desirability or undesirability, obligation or convention, etc.). The means of expressing modality are: 1) the category of mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive) and 2) special lexical and grammatical means ( modal verbs, modal words and particles).

Finally, an essential feature of a sentence, which, along with predicativity and modality, delimits a sentence from a phrase, is intonation . The intonation of the question, message, prompting, etc. differ.

Thus, the main features of a sentence are predicativity (the relation of the content of the sentence to reality), modality (the relation of the speaker to the utterance), intonation and relative semantic completeness.

Simple sentence is the main central syntactic unit. It contains one predicative unit.

Difficult sentence- a sentence that has in its composition two or more predicative units that form a single whole in a semantic, constructive and intonational sense.

Complex syntactic whole, or interphrase unity, is a combination of several sentences in the text, characterized by the relative completeness of the topic (micro-theme), semantic and syntactic cohesion of the components.

Text- a segment of speech organized on the basis of linguistic connections and relations, meaningfully combining syntactic units into a whole.

The concept of syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic links (and means of communication) and grammatical (syntactic) semantics.

Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic links and relations.

A construction is a syntactically meaningful association of words that have a direct connection.

For example, in the sentence "My friends congratulated me on a new victory," the combinations: my friends, friends congratulated, congratulated me, a new victory, congratulated me on the victory are constructions. The whole sentence is also a construction.

And such combinations of word forms as: me with a victory, me with a new one, friends with a victory, etc. are not constructions, because the connection between the words here is not direct, but indirect, for example: they congratulated me on my victory (the connection of word forms with my victory is carried out through the word congratulated).

Sometimes constructions are called models (structural diagrams), according to which sentences and phrases are built.

For example, two sentences that are completely different in content: "Grandma is sleeping." "The sun is shining" in terms of syntactic modeling are considered identical. They are built according to the same model: N1 - Vf (noun in the nominative case + verb in the personal form, between which a predicative connection is established).

The American scientist C. Fillmore proposed a new understanding of constructions. These are such linguistic expressions that have an aspect of the plane of expression or the plane of content, which is not inferred from the meaning or form of their constituent parts.

Examples of constructions, according to Fillmore, are language expressions such as let alone (English let alone) He would not give me a dime, let alone ten dollars; He would not give me ten cents, let alone ten dollars.

Constructions include comparative, conditional constructions, etc. Fillmore's idea of constructions denies the composition principle, according to which the meaning of any language expression is reduced to the sum of the values of its constituent lexical units and the syntactic rules connecting them. Constructions, according to Fillmore, are not reduced to components (word forms) and relationships between them. They also have the meaning of the structure itself, which can impose certain restrictions on the composition of the structure.

For example, the construction Here - Vf - N1 is possible with the predicate goes: Here comes Ivan, but is hardly appropriate with the predicate, for example, to read: Here Ivan is reading. AT English language in the Here is John construction, not any verbs are possible as predicates, but only some, for example: be "to be", sit "to sit", stand "to stand", lie "to lie" and some others.

Note that syntactic models belong to the language only as abstract models, and their specific content with one or another lexical material depends on speech conditions, is a fact of speech, is determined by the content of the statement, the intention of the speaker. However, it should be noted that there are certain rules for filling in the structural models of a sentence with words of certain semantic categories, in other words, not only the schemes themselves belong to the language, but also the rules for their lexical filling. In speech, this model is filled with specific words in accordance with the needs of communication.

syntax function. Syntactic function is the role of a word or word form in a syntactic construction. The function of syntactic units is defined as their role in the construction of a communicative unit - a sentence. The function expresses the relation of a syntactic unit to a communicative unit.

Examples of syntactic functions are: the functions of the members of the sentence (subject, object, circumstance, etc.), the functions of introductory words, the functions of the defined and defining in the phrase, etc.

Wed: By morning, frost will stick to pine branches (Kedrin). The sentence contains 7 words, 5 word forms, 5 members of the sentence. Strong evening dew was supposed to lie on the grass (A. Tolstoy). The sentence contains 8 words, 7 word forms, 5 members of the sentence. Thus, word forms are structural elements of syntactic units (constructions): phrases, simple sentence, complex sentence, a complex syntactic whole, which are the main syntactic units.

The question of the composition of syntactic units (how many and what they are) has not yet been unambiguously resolved in linguistics, however, most scientists consider all the above syntactic units.

Phrase and sentence. The doctrine of the word-combination developed contradictory and complex. A.A. Shakhmatov defines a phrase as: "... such a combination of words that forms a grammatical unity, revealed by the dependence of some of these words on others"

There are numerous other interpretations of the concept of "phrase": 1. Some linguists were characterized by an understanding of the phrase, based on the etymological meaning of the term. So F.F. Fortunatov understands a phrase as any combination of full-value words, decorated with grammatical and semantic indicators, regardless of their form and purpose in speech. "A phrase in speech I call that whole by meaning, which is formed by the combination of one full word (not a particle) with another in full, whether it will be an expression of a whole psychological judgment, or an expression of its part. "So, the sentence is classified as one of the categories of phrases.

2. A.M. Peshkovsky understands the phrase even more broadly: "A phrase is two words or a series of words combined in speech and in thought." With this approach, it is considered possible to consider as one phrase the union of two or more sentences.

3. M.N. Peterson considers the phrase as "a combination of words equal to a simple sentence", thus excluding the doctrine of the sentence from the syntax. In this case, the relationship of minor members to each other and their relationship to the main members are considered, that is, phrases are separated from the sentence. At the same time, the sentence itself is also classified as a phrase, but unlike others, such phrases are declared complete.

4. The established grammatical tradition was also reflected in the views of V.P. Sukhotin on the problem of phrases. Under the phrase, the scientist understands "the minimum grammatical and semantic unity in the composition of a sentence, reflecting the connections of reality."

Such a definition leads to the following conclusions: 1) the phrase is isolated from the sentence; 2) the combination of subject and predicate is also a phrase that performs the function of a message or statement about reality, other phrases are non-predicative; 3) in some cases, phrases can be equal to a simple sentence; 4) phrases are divided into homogeneous (with a coordinative connection: teacher and engineer) and heterogeneous (with a subordinating connection: engineer teacher)").

From what has been said above, it follows that the phrase is understood as such a syntactic unity that is isolated from the sentence and exists only in the sentence.

5. Systematizing research in the field of phrases, V.V. Vinogradov offers a different view of this unit and distinguishes between the concept of a phrase and the concept of a sentence, relying on a functional approach to both. As a result, it turns out that the sentence is a communicative unit, and the phrase is a nominative unit.

V.V. Vinogradov writes: "Phrase and sentence are concepts of different semantic series and different stylistic planes. They correspond to different forms of thinking. A sentence is not a kind of phrase at all, since there are words-sentences. A phrase has no grammatical features that would indicate the completeness of the message. The phrase only in the composition of the sentence and through the sentence enters the system of means of communication, but it, like the word, refers to the means of designation and is building material in the process of linguistic communication.

From such an understanding of a phrase, it follows that not every combination of full-meaning words is a phrase, but only one that is a "product of the semantic spread of the word", i.e. built according to the rules of word distribution. Consequently, the theory of the phrase includes questions related to the clarification of the grammatical relationships between the components of a complex name, which is the phrase, and the definition of the meaning that is expressed by this name. It follows that the relationship between the subject and the predicate, the relationship of rows of words united by a coordinating link ( homogeneous members), as well as semi-predicative phrases expressing an additional message, are entirely related to the theory of the sentence and have nothing to do with the problems of phrases.

One cannot but say that there is another, polar point of view, which is reflected in the judgment about the complete denial of the phrase as a syntactic unit, however further development this point of view is not received.

It follows from the foregoing that the problems associated with the phrase (their volume, boundaries, the possibility of compatibility of lexical units, etc.) have not been fully resolved and continue to develop in modern linguistics, but at present the dominant point of view on the phrase remains the point of view V.V. Vinogradov.

So, we rely on the following basic definition of the phrase V.V. Vinogradova: "... forms of grammatical association of two or more significant words that have historically developed in the language, devoid of the main features of the sentence, but creating a dissected designation of a single concept."

Since syntactic units are hierarchical, similarities and differences between them should be taken into account:

1. Word and phrase. The features that unite the concepts of words and phrases are:

1) are not communicative units of the language, are included in speech only as part of a sentence;

2) do not have predicative meanings, intonation of the message;

3) act as nominative means of language, naming objects, their signs, actions;

4) have a paradigm change.

Signs of difference are manifested in the structure and in the meaning: a word is a lexical unit consisting of morphemes, a phrase is a syntactic unit consisting of 2 or more significant words united by a subordinating relationship.

The word names objects and phenomena of reality in an undivided form. It can have a large set of potential semes, which determines the number of possible word combinations, where potential semes are specified and revealed.

For example: write a letter, write beautifully, write with a pen, write on a blackboard,

write to a friend sleep on the couch, sleep soundly, sleep for two hours, etc.)

Phrases call objects and phenomena of reality in a dissected form, that is, they have a specific, detailed name that does not require further clarification. This feature deprives this unit of the opportunity to have potential semes.

For example: dinner table, desk, diet table, passport

table, etc.

2. Phrase and sentence. In the relationship between the concepts of a phrase and a sentence, the main feature that distinguishes them is the presence of predicativity, modality, syntactic tense and intonational completeness in the sentence and the absence of these features in the phrase. Predicativity is what "makes a sentence a sentence". If the combination of word forms is a complete, separate and independent grammatically and intonation part of the text, then this phrase is designated as "predicative".

For a phrase as a unit of the lowest level of the syntactic system, it is advisable to single out the following distinctive (differential) features of phrases and sentences and take them into account when analyzing the phrase:

1) grammatical - non-predicative unit;

2) functional - a unit of the nominative plan, expressing a single, but dissected concept of objects, features, actions;

3) structural - a construction consisting of at least two significant words connected by a subordinate relationship of coordination, control, adjoining;

4) semantic - a construction in which certain syntactic relations between words are expressed;

5) paradigmatic - a unit represented by a system of forms based on the forms of the main, pivotal word.

Phrase classification:

1. Depending on the number of constituent components, phrases are divided into simple and complex.

Simple phrases consist of two meaningful words: country walk, blue sky, love music.

Simple phrases also include those that include analytical forms of the word: I will speak frankly, the bluest sea; and those in which the dependent component is a syntactic or phraseological unity: a man of short stature (= undersized), an officer with a tanned face (= tanned), a girl of sixteen years old (= sixteen years old), run headlong.

Combinations with phraseologized verbal elements of a clerical or bookish nature are close to the type of simple phrases: to show interest in business, to fight slovenliness. They can be considered as a transitional type between simple and complex combinations.

Compound phrases consist of three or more full-valued words and are various combinations of simple phrases or words and phrases. Some generalizations of such combinations are possible.

a). A simple phrase and a separate word form dependent on it:

For example: often used in the clinic, brick house on the outskirts, Nice dress dotted.

The peculiarity of these SSs is that dependent word forms are not grammatically connected in them, so the division of a complex SS into simple ones is variable.

b) A core word and a simple phrase dependent on it.

For example: a building with white columns, an old man with a gray beard, nature stingy with colors, a delicious-looking apple, a great desire, a work close to completion, a girl with a cheeky tongue.

The peculiarity of the structure of these phrases is that the dependent word form in a dependent simple phrase is associated only with the main word of this phrase and has nothing to do with the core word of the entire phrase, therefore, only one division option is allowed: the building is with white columns, the old man is with a gray-haired beard, etc.

in). The core word and two (or more) dependent word forms that do not form phrases (that is, are not related to each other). These are some verb phrases in which the verb can be extended by two nouns.

For example: laying planks in a row, involving friends in the work, turning water into steam, driving a nail into a wall, sewing a coat for a child.

Such phrases, unlike the first two groups, are not the product of combining whole phrases. Their formation is explained by the lexical and grammatical properties of transitive verbs: they are able to spread in several prepositional-case forms, that is, they exhibit a double syntactic link.

For example: turn water and turn into steam, drive a nail and drive it into a wall.

Such phrases are also possible among some substantive ones: turning water into steam, involving friends in work.

Along with three-word phrases, four-, five-word, etc. can be formed. It is important that they are always built according to the same principle: the distribution of existing words in a simple or complex three-word phrase.

For example: ready to fight - ready to fight alone; nature stingy with colors - northern nature stingy with colors, northern nature very stingy with colors.

Despite the large volume of such phrases, they do not lose their semantic and grammatical unity, so the principles of connecting their constituent components are preserved: they are based on the principle of constructing simple phrases. Such phrases are sometimes called combined.

The possibility of constructing complex multi-word phrases does not at all indicate the boundlessness of their scope. The complication of simple phrases is limited by the scope of non-communicative word associations.

Consequently, the volume of phrases is limited by its grammatical nature, its qualitative difference from the sentence.

2. In accordance with the morphological and syntactic features, the following lexical and grammatical types of phrases are distinguished: verbal, nominal, adverbial.

a). Verb phrases have the following patterns:

Verb + noun or pronoun (with or without a preposition): buy bread, turn to it;

Verb + infinitive or gerund: ask to come, sit in thought;

Verb + adverb: do the right thing, repeat twice.

b). Nominal phrases are divided into substantive, adjective, with the main word numeral and with the main word pronoun.

The main models of substantive phrases:

Noun + agreed word: clear day, my world;

Noun + noun: city on fire, excerpt from a poem;

Noun + adverb: step forward, fishing in winter;

Noun + infinitive: willingness to help, a reason to talk.

c) The main models of adjectival phrases:

Adjective + adverb: festively elegant, barely audible;

Adjective + noun (pronoun): broad in the shoulders, indifferent to everything;

Adjective + infinitive: able to organize, ready to resist.

The last types of phrases with the main word numeral and

with the main word pronoun are not syntactically free and do not differ in a variety of models: two friends, two comrades, someone in white, something special.

in). Adverbial type phrases (with predicative and non-predicative adverbs) have 2 models:

Adverb + adverb: hot in summer, very tasty;

Adverb + noun: hurt the hand, high in the mountains, long before the holiday.

3. Depending on the degree of cohesion of the components, which is due to the completeness of the expression of the lexical meaning, phrases can be free and not free.

Free phrases consist of words that retain their independence due to sufficient information content. In a sentence, each component of a free phrase performs an independent role.

The components of free phrases can be replaced, since the syntactic links in them are alive and productive:

For example: late autumn, early..., cold..., rainy...; late fall, ...

spring, ... love.

At the same time, free phrases can include components that have limited lexical compatibility:

For example: listen... and eavesdrop..., which is reflected in the number of variants of phrases with the same word.

It is known that compatibility is one of the fundamental concepts of a language system, since it reflects the syntagmatic properties of language units. Compatibility is always associated with the coordination of these two words, which allows you to reveal (actualize), on the one hand, the lexical essence of a given word usage, and on the other hand, syntactic relations in a phrase. The categorical meaning of words determines their syntactic compatibility in general, for example, nouns are combined with adjectives, adjectives with adverbs, verbs with nouns, etc., and the lexical meaning determines the number of possible syntactic combinations of one particular lexeme or group of lexemes with one leading seme.

The analysis of word combinations from the point of view of the features of compatibility of lexemes in them leads to interesting conclusions and results that allow us to identify new semantic varieties of word combinations within the framework of known syntactic relations, to discover new types of lexical units that have not been previously identified, etc. The problem of semantic and syntactic compatibility in the language system remains very interesting and relevant.

Syntactically non-free phrases either include informatively insufficient components with a lexically weakened meaning, which results in the use of the entire phrase as a single lexical-syntactic unit, or are structurally inseparable in this context:

In any case, the entire phrase performs the function of one member of the sentence. In the educational literature, syntactically non-free phrases are distinguished that are not divided into separate components in the context:

Compare: "Two boys playing "I watched the game of two boys." "Mother and son went to the forest" and Mother went to the store with her son"; and phraseologically non-free phrases that contain informatively insufficient components and are equal in meaning to one word:

For example: indulge in reasoning, have the opportunity, give the floor, carelessly, etc.

Semantics of phrases. The word forms that make up the phrase are in certain syntactic relationships, which are built on the basis of the interaction of the lexical meanings of these words and their forms. The whole variety of these relations can be summarized as follows:

Attributive syntactic relations exist between the subject and the sign in a broad sense, they answer the questions which, whose, which, take place in nominal phrases.

Object syntactic relations denote the relationship between the action and the object, answer questions of indirect cases, are possible in verbal phrases and nominal with verbal nouns or adjectives.

Adverbial syntactic relations denote the relationship between an action and a sign, an action and a state, a sign and a sign, they answer the questions of adverbs proper, they are possible in verbal and nominal (with an adjective) phrases. Semantic varieties of circumstantial syntactic relations are similar to the categories of adverbial adverbs proper.

Subject syntactic relations are found in constructions with a passive turnover, in which the instrumental case of the name has the meaning of the subject, for example: planted by the father, raised by the nanny, overturned by the wind, etc.

Complementary syntactic relations arise as a result of the need for some words to have an additional (obligatory) semantic clarification, while the dependent word form makes up for an informatively insufficient core component, for example: to be known as an eccentric, to be called a load, to be distinguished by endurance, to become noticeable, etc.

The syntactic relations of measure reveal the internal quantitative attribute of objects, actions, states in the core component, expressed by a noun or a verb, in the seme composition of which the seme of the magnitude (quantitative seme) of the measured space, time, weight, volume, value (qualitative semes), etc. . For the syntactic relations of the measure, the semantic agreement of the qualitative-quantitative semes of the core and dependent components is mandatory.

For example: an interval of ten seconds, a two-minute interval, a small interval, two meters, ten hours, several thousand rubles, etc.

At the level of the sentence, the syntactic relations of the measure are manifested in the definition, the predicate and the circumstances of the measure.

Syntactic relations of degree are subjective and arise between an object and a feature in a dynamic state, between an action and a feature in a dynamic state, they are a kind of attributive (in the broad sense) and adverbial syntactic relations.

Compare: unbearable disappointments, swooning delight, a huge cat,

wide bridge, rushing fast, getting incredibly excited, etc.

So, syntactic relations in a phrase depend on 1) the general lexical and grammatical properties of the combined parts of speech and their categorical meanings, 2) on the lexical meaning of the combined words, 3) on the context, wider than the phrase.

When analyzing a phrase, it should be remembered that the phrase as a syntactic unit exists in the sentence and, characterizing it, one cannot ignore the surrounding context, since the semantics of the phrase, like words, is determined not only by internal semantic relations between components (for a word, this is a dictionary meaning ), but also foreign relations with other words in the sentence, so the meaning of the phrase should be specially specified.

The phrase analysis scheme is traditional:

1. Initial shape (determined by the initial shape of the bar component).

2. Structural type (simple, complex, combined).

3. Lexico-grammatical type of phrase, block diagram (a way of expressing the main and dependent components).

4. Type according to the degree of cohesion of the components (free, not free; to establish the reason why the phrase is not free: informative insufficiency of the core component or structural conditionality).

5. The semantics of the phrase (determine the syntactic relations between the components using the method of questions; if the question is impossible, analyze the set of basic semes in both components and establish the agreement of the seme; indicate the internal and contextual meaning of the phrase).

6. The form of the phrase (determine the type of syntactic connection, the degree of connection, ways of expressing syntactic relations: the form of the components in the composition of the phrase, prepositions, word order).

Offer. There is no single definition of a sentence in science, however, attempts are being made to define a sentence in terms of:

1) logical - F.I. Buslaev pointed out that "a judgment expressed in words is a proposal";

2) psychological: - D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky gave the following definition: “A sentence is such a word or such an ordered combination of words that is associated with a special movement of thought, known as “predication” (“predicativeness”);

3) formal-grammatical - F.F. Fortunatov considered the sentence as one of the types of phrases. He wrote: “Among the grammatical phrases used in full sentences in speech, the dominant ones in the Russian language are precisely those phrases that we have the right to call grammatical sentences, since they contain, as parts, a grammatical subject and a grammatical predicate.”

As a working definition, we will accept the following definition: a sentence is the minimum unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has a certain semantic and intonational completeness, naming not a single object of reality, but a certain situation as a connection of an object with reality.

In the words of the French syntaxist L. Tenier, a sentence is a “little drama”, which includes an action (indicated by the predicate situation), actors (actants) and circumstances (sir constants). In addition to the fact that each actant in each situation has a certain role inherent in it, there are also “roles” - certain standard semantic roles that act in different situations. These roles include:

Agents - animated initiator of the action, controlling it (the boy runs; the boy breaks the table);

Patient - a participant who is more involved in the situation than others and undergoes the most significant changes in it (the boy falls; the father beats the boy);

Benefactive - a participant in the situation, whose interests are affected in it (I give the book to the boy; I praise the boy);

Experiencer - a carrier of an involuntary feeling or a recipient of information with verbs of perception (a boy sees; a boy likes);

A tool is an inanimate object with which an action is carried out (write with a pencil) and some others.

The syntactic organization of a sentence is characterized by two different levels and involves two different objects of study: the structural organization of the sentence, and its actual articulation.

The syntactic structure of a sentence is the set of syntactic links of a given sentence. Structural schemes, syntactic models are models legalized in a given language, according to which sentences are built. Structural diagram is an example, a template.

The central grammatical unit of syntax is the simple sentence. This is determined by the fact that a simple sentence is an elementary unit intended for the transmission of relatively complete information, possessing such properties that make it possible to attribute what is reported to one or another time plan. In addition, a simple sentence is the main unit involved in the formation of a complex sentence and text.

A simple sentence consists of phrases and word forms, has its own grammatical characteristics: 1) it is formed according to a special grammatical pattern; 2) possesses linguistic meanings, formal characteristics, intonation formality and the ability to change. A simple sentence, like the previously studied units of the language system, enters into paradigmatic relations. Paradigmatic relations are formal changes in the structure itself (particular manifestations of a general categorical meaning), expressed by special means. Particular grammatical meanings of a simple sentence are expressed by significant or functional words, syntactic particles, word order and intonation.

A simple sentence enters into syntagmatic relations - the members of a simple sentence are combined with each other according to certain rules.

The formal and semantic organization of a simple sentence is especially complex. Each simple sentence is built according to a certain formal pattern, which is called a predicative basis or structural scheme. Such schemes are abstractions abstracted from an unlimited number of concrete proposals.

Compare examples: The child is having fun. The train is coming. The boy is reading. The sentences are built according to the model: noun + conjugated verb, expressing the relationship of the procedural attribute and its carrier in one or another time plan.

Work is added. The water is decreasing. - Rod.p. noun + Ch. in f. 3rd l. unit The scheme expresses the relationship between the procedural state and its bearer.

Winter. Night. - Im.p. noun - states the fact of existence.

The forms of words that organize the predicative stem are called the components of the structural scheme, the main members, the predicative center.

Predicativity - the ratio of the content of the sentence to reality, i.e. whether the reflected reality is a real fact, whether the action is in progress or it has already been completed, who are the actors in the sentence.

Thus, the block diagram of a sentence has grammatical properties that allow us to indicate that what is being reported is either actually carried out in time (present, past, future), that is, has a real time plan, or is thought of as possible, due, desired, then there is an unrealistic plan, or temporary uncertainty.

Thus, the concept of predicativity as an abstract syntactic category consists of the following concepts: structural scheme, temporal plan of the reported and reality/irreality of the reported, verbal grammatical categories of tense, person, mood, voice, aspect, etc.

The main means of forming predicativity is the category of mood, with the help of which the message appears in the aspect of reality / unreality.

The idea of the essence of predicativity (as well as the term itself) is not unambiguous. Along with the concept of V.V. Vinogradov and his schools, the term "predicativity" also denotes the property of the predicate as a syntactic member of a two-part sentence. The concept of predicativity is included in the concepts of "predicative connection", "predicative relations", which denote relations that connect the subject and the predicate, as well as the logical subject and the predicate; in this use, predicativity is no longer understood as a category of the highest level of abstraction (inherent in the sentence model as such, in the sentence in general, regardless of its composition), but as a concept associated with the level of division of the sentence, that is, with such sentences in which the subject can be distinguished and predicate.

Thus, it is important to distinguish between these notions of predicativity. When qualifying the grammatical meaning of a simple sentence, the term "predicativity" is understood as a syntactic category.

semantic structure. The sentence combines in one of its grammatical forms several meanings of different levels of abstraction. Firstly, the structural pattern of a simple sentence itself has an abstract meaning common to all sentences, the so-called predicativity. The meaning of predicativity inherent in the sample is transferred to a specific sentence and modified in the paradigm of the sentence, that is, in its various syntactic forms, expressing the meanings of reality and unreality. But in specific sentences there is one more meaning coming from the components of the predicative stem and from their relations + the lexical meaning of the words.

For example: The student writes - the subject and its active action; Thunder rumbles - the subject and its presence, existence; Dawn - the presence of a subjectless action; A lot of things to do, little joy - the subject and its quantitative sign, etc. All of the above is related to the semantics of the structural scheme or to the semantic structure of the sentence.

Thus, the semantic structure is its linguistic meaning, which is created by the interaction of the semantics of the structural scheme and the lexical meaning of words.

The categories of the semantic structure are the predicative attribute, the subject - the carrier of the predicative attribute and the object; at the level of the sentence, these meanings are refined and differentiated. Sentences that have a different grammatical organization, but a similar semantic structure, are considered in some studies as transforms, then transformations of one into another, for example:

Evening comes - Evening; The son is studying - the son is a student.

Syntax.

Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. Of particular note is the section that considers a larger syntactic whole - the union of sentences in coherent speech.

The phrase is a unit of syntax

A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words, related in meaning and grammatically, and representing complex names of phenomena of objective reality. Being, along with the word, an element of sentence construction, the phrase acts as one of the main syntactic units.

Phrases are not:

o grammatical basis;

o homogeneous members of the proposal;

o official part of speech + noun;

o phraseology.

There are syntactic phrases and phraseological phrases. The former are studied in syntax, the latter in phraseology. Compare: 1) red matter, iron beam; 2) red currant, Railway.

Among syntactic phrases, phrases are free and not free. The former are easily decomposed into their constituent parts, the latter form a syntactically indecomposable unity (they act as a single member in a sentence). For example: 1) the right book, a lecture on literature, run headlong; 2) two students, several books.

Types of connection of words in a phrase. In a subordinating phrase, one word is the main one, and the other is dependent. There are three types of connection:

Agreement is a type of connection in which the dependent word agrees with the main word in gender, number, case.

Examples: a beautiful hat, about an interesting story.

Management is a type of connection in which the dependent word is used in a certain form depending on the lexical and grammatical meaning of the main word.

Adjacency is a type of connection in which the dependence of a word is expressed lexically, by word order and intonation, without the use of auxiliary words or morphological change. It is formed by adverbs, infinitives and participles.

Examples: singing beautifully, lying still, very tired.

Classification of phrases by the main word

1. Verbs. Examples: make a plan, stand at the blackboard, ask to come in, read aloud.

2. Nominal

§ Substantive (with a noun as the main word)

Examples: essay plan, country trip, third grade, soft-boiled eggs.

§ Adjectives (with an adjective as the main word)

Examples: worthy of a reward, ready for a feat, very diligent.

§ Quantitative (with a numeral as the main word)

Examples: two pencils, the second of the contenders.

§ Pronouns (with a pronoun as the main word)

Examples: one of the students, something new.

4. Adverbs

Examples: extremely important, away from the road.

Classification of phrases by composition (by structure)

1. Simple phrases, as a rule, consist of two significant words. Examples: new house, a person with gray hair (= a gray-haired person).

2. Compound phrases are formed on the basis of simple phrases.

Examples: fun walks in the evenings, relaxing in the summer in the south.

Classification of phrases according to the degree of fusion of components

According to the degree of fusion of components, phrases are distinguished:

§ syntactically free

Examples: tall house.

§ syntactically (or phraseologically) non-free, forming an indecomposable syntactic unity and acting in the sentence as one member:

Examples: three sisters, pansies.

A sentence is one of the basic units of syntax

A sentence is the smallest unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has a certain semantic and intonational completeness. Being a unit of communication, the sentence is at the same time a unit of formation and expression of thought, in which the unity of language and thinking finds its manifestation.

Members of a sentence are grammatically significant parts into which a sentence is divided during syntactic analysis. They can consist of both single words and phrases. There are two main members of the sentence: the subject and the predicate, which are in a predicative relationship, forming a predicative unit, and play the most important role. The secondary members of the sentence include the object, circumstance, definition.

The composition of the subject is the subject and all minor members of the sentence that relate to the subject (common and non-common definitions).

Similarly, the composition of the predicate is the predicate and all the secondary members of the sentence that relate to the predicate (circumstances and objects with dependent words).

For example: A beautiful stranger on the plane gave him an enigmatic smile. Beautiful - a definition, a stranger - a subject, on an airplane - a circumstance, gave - a predicate, a smile - an object, to him - an indirect object.

Offer types

A sentence does not always express a thought, it can express a question, an impulse, a will, an emotion. According to this proposals are of the following types:

A declarative (declarative) sentence reports a fact, action or event, or contains a denial of them: I will go out into the street at eleven o'clock. I won't be gathering for a long time.

An interrogative sentence encourages the interlocutor to answer the question of the speaker. Interrogative sentences are of the following types:

Actually interrogative sentence contains a question that necessarily implies an answer: Did you do the job? Has he already arrived?

An interrogative-affirmative sentence contains information that requires confirmation: So are you going? Has it already been decided? Well, let's go? (see also the definition of an interrogative sentence)

An interrogative-negative sentence already contains a negation of what is being asked: What can you like here? Doesn't this seem particularly nice? And what can you tell us?

Interrogative-affirmative and interrogative-negative sentences can be combined into the category of interrogative-declarative sentences.

An interrogative-incentive sentence contains an incentive to action, expressed in the question itself: So, maybe we can continue our lesson? Shall we get ready first? Well, let's go?

An interrogative-rhetorical sentence contains an affirmation or a negation and does not require an answer, since the answer is contained in the question itself: Desires ... What good is it to wish in vain and forever?

An incentive sentence contains the will of the speaker, expressing an order, request or prayer. Incentive sentences are distinguished by: stimulating intonation, predicate in the form imperative mood, the presence of particles that introduce an incentive connotation into the sentence (come on, let it).

An exclamatory sentence expresses the emotions of the speaker, which is conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Exclamatory sentences can be declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

If the sentence contains only the subject and the predicate, then it is called non-common, otherwise it is common.

A sentence is considered simple if it contains one predicative unit, if more - complex.

If the sentence contains both the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate, then it is called two-part, otherwise it is one-part.

One-part sentences are divided into the following types:

· A definite personal sentence is a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a verb-predicate, which, with its personal endings, indicates that the action named by it is performed by a certain, 1st or 2nd, person: I'm going home. Get ready!

· An indefinite personal sentence is a simple one-part sentence without a subject, when the action is performed by an indefinite person: I was called to the director.

· A generalized personal sentence is a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a verb-predicate, where anyone can be the subject of the action: You can’t even pull a fish out of the pond without difficulty.

· An impersonal sentence is a simple one-part sentence with a predicate naming such an action or state, which is presented without the participation of the grammatical subject of the action: It was getting dark. It was already light. I want to drink. It was as if he suddenly twitched. Under the thick foliage, there was a smell of grass and forest.

An infinitive sentence is a simple one-part sentence in which the predicate is expressed by an infinitive (a verb in an indefinite form). In such sentences, the subject cannot be expressed by any word without changing the form of the predicate: Silence! You already have to go. Just to be on time!

· A nominative sentence is a simple one-part sentence in which the subject is expressed by a noun in the nominative case and there is no predicate (the predicate is expressed by the verb "to be" in zero form): Summer morning. There is silence in the air.

If the proposal contains all the necessary members of the proposal, then it is considered complete, otherwise - incomplete. Both two-part sentences and one-part sentences can be complete or incomplete. In incomplete sentences, some members of the sentence are omitted in accordance with the context or setting: Where is it? - I loved you very much. - And I you. In incomplete sentences, there may not be both a subject and a predicate at the same time: Where? What for?

What is a complex sentence?

complex a sentence is called, which has in its composition two or more predicative units that form a single whole in a semantic, constructive and intonational sense.

The way the parts are connected is different. allied and unionless complex sentences. The first are divided into two types of complex sentences: 1) compound suggestions and 2) complex subordinate suggestions.

compound A complex sentence is called, the parts of which are interconnected by coordinating unions.

In compound sentences, connective, adversative, and separative relations are most often expressed (cf. the functions of coordinating conjunctions and their classification). In addition, compound sentences can express comparative, connecting, explanatory relations with various additional shades of meaning.

Plan:

1. Syntax. Basic Syntax Units 3

1.1. The word is one of the basic grammatical units of the Russian language 3

1.2. Phrase - unit of syntax 4

1.3. Phrase - unit of syntax 7

2. Morphemics. Basic word-formation norms 11

References 13

1. Syntax. Basic units of syntax

Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic links and relations.

As part of syntactic units, modified words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word. However, word forms are studied both in morphology and syntax, but they look different. Wed: By morning, frost will stick to pine branches (Kedrin). In the sentence - 7 words, 5 word forms, 5 members of the sentence.

Strong evening dew was supposed to lie on the grass. (A. Tolstoy). In the sentence - 8 words, 7 word forms, 5 members of the sentence.

Thus, word forms are structural elements of syntactic units: phrases, simple sentences, complex sentences, complex syntactic wholes, which are the main syntactic units.

1.1. The word is one of the main grammatical units of the Russian language

The word is one of the basic grammatical units. It combines its sound matter, lexical meaning and formal grammatical characteristics. The grammatical properties of a word include its meaning as a part of speech (i.e., as a unit belonging to a certain lexico-grammatical class of words), word-formation structure, the ability to formal changes and all its abstract meanings subordinated to common sense class (part of speech); for a name, these are, for example, meanings such as gender, number, case, for a verb - aspect, pledge, tense, mood, person. In addition to these properties, the word has its own active potential, manifested, on the one hand, in the possibilities of its syntactic and lexical-semantic compatibility, its participation in the construction of sentences and statements, on the other hand, in its active relation to different types of contextual environments. Thus, the word is a unit, with its different sides belonging simultaneously to all levels of the grammatical system - word formation, morphology, and syntax.

1.2. The phrase is a unit of syntax

A phrase is a combination of two or more significant words that are related in meaning and grammatically and are complex names for phenomena of objective reality, for example: a student meeting, an article on dialectology, a person of average height, read aloud. Being, along with the word, an element of sentence construction, the phrase acts as one of the main syntactic units. Some grammarians (F.F. Fortunatov, M.N. Peterson) defined syntax as the doctrine of phrases.

Phrases are not:

¾ grammatical basis;

¾ homogeneous members of the proposal;

¾ official part of speech + noun;

¾ phraseological unit.

There are syntactic phrases and phraseological phrases. The former are studied in syntax, the latter in phraseology. Compare: 1) red matter, iron beam, dull look; 2) redcurrant, railway, obtuse angle.

Types of connection of words in a phrase. A predicative connection is a connection between members of a grammatical basis in a sentence.

In a subordinating phrase, one word is the main one, and the other is dependent (you can ask a question to it from the main word). There are three types of connections between words in a phrase:

Agreement is a type of connection in which the dependent word agrees with the main word in gender, number, case.

Examples: a beautiful hat, about an interesting story.

Management is a type of connection in which the dependent word is used in a certain form depending on the lexical and grammatical meaning of the main word.

Examples: singing beautifully, lying still, very tired.

Another definition of connection "Adjacent": a connection that is used in a phrase, where the dependent component is an invariable word or such an isolated from other forms as a comparative degree, an indefinite form of a verb.

Classification of phrases by the main word

According to the morphological properties of the main word, phrases are classified as follows:

1. Verbs. Examples: make a plan, stand at the blackboard, ask to come in, read aloud.

2. Nominal

Substantive (with a noun as the main word)

Examples: essay plan, country trip, third grade, soft-boiled eggs.

Adjectives (with an adjective as the main word)

Examples: worthy of a reward, ready for a feat, very diligent, ready to help.

Quantitative (with a numeral as the main word)

Examples: two pencils, the second of the contenders.

Pronouns (with a pronoun as the main word)

Examples: one of the students, something new.

4. Adverbs

Examples: extremely important, away from the road.

Classification of phrases by composition (by structure)

1. Simple phrases, as a rule, consist of two significant words.

Examples: a new house, a person with gray hair (= a gray-haired person).

2. Compound phrases are formed on the basis of simple phrases.

Examples: fun walks in the evenings, relaxing in the summer in the south.

Classification of phrases according to the degree of fusion of components

According to the degree of fusion of components, phrases are distinguished:

Syntactically free

Examples: tall house.

Syntactically (or phraseologically) not free, forming an indecomposable syntactic unity and acting in the sentence as one member:

Examples: three sisters, pansies.

The phrase is considered as a unit of syntax that performs a communicative function (included in speech) only as part of a sentence.

It is generally accepted that word combinations include compounds of words based on a subordinate connection (connection of the main and dependent members). Some researchers also recognize coordinating phrases - combinations of homogeneous members of a sentence.

1.3. A sentence is one of the basic units of syntax

Another basic syntactic unit is the sentence. A sentence is the smallest unit of human speech, which is a grammatically organized combination of words (or a word) that has a certain semantic and intonational completeness. Being a unit of communication, the sentence is at the same time a unit of formation and expression of thought, in which the unity of language and thinking finds its manifestation.

Members of the proposal

The composition of the subject is the subject and all minor members of the sentence that relate to the subject (common and non-common definitions).

Similarly, the composition of the predicate is the predicate and all the secondary members of the sentence that relate to the predicate (circumstances and objects with dependent words).

Offer types

A sentence does not always express a thought, it can express a question, an impulse, a will, an emotion. According to this proposals are of the following types:

A declarative (declarative) sentence reports a fact, action or event, or contains a denial of them: I will go out into the street at eleven o'clock. I won't be gathering for a long time.

An interrogative sentence encourages the interlocutor to answer the question of the speaker. Interrogative sentences are of the following types:

The interrogative sentence itself contains a question that necessarily implies an answer: Did you do the job? Has he already arrived?

An interrogative-negative sentence already contains a negation of what is being asked: What can you like here? Doesn't this seem particularly nice? And what can you tell us?

Interrogative-affirmative and interrogative-negative sentences can be combined into the category of interrogative-declarative sentences.

An interrogative-incentive sentence contains an incentive to action, expressed in the question itself: So, maybe we can continue our lesson? Shall we get ready first? Well, let's go?

An incentive sentence contains the will of the speaker, expressing an order, request or prayer. Incentive sentences are distinguished by: motivating intonation, a predicate in the form of an imperative mood, the presence of particles that introduce a motivating connotation into the sentence (come on, let it).

If the sentence contains only the subject and the predicate, then it is called non-common, otherwise it is common.

A sentence is considered simple if it contains one predicative unit, if more - complex.

If the sentence contains both the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate, then it is called two-part, otherwise it is one-part.

One-part sentences are divided into the following types:

A definite personal sentence is a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a verb-predicate, which, with its personal endings, indicates that the action named by it is performed by a certain, 1st or 2nd, person: I'm going home. Get ready!

An indefinite personal sentence is a simple one-part sentence without a subject, when the action is performed by an indefinite person: I was called to the director.

A generalized personal sentence is a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a verb-predicate, where anyone can be the subject of the action: You can’t even pull a fish out of the pond without difficulty.

An impersonal sentence is a simple one-part sentence with a predicate naming such an action or state, which is presented without the participation of the grammatical subject of the action: It became dark. It was already light. I want to drink. It was as if he suddenly twitched. Under the thick foliage, there was a smell of grass and forest.

A nominative sentence is a simple one-part sentence in which the subject is expressed by a noun in the nominative case and there is no predicate (the predicate is expressed by the verb "to be" in zero form): Summer morning. There is silence in the air.

2. Morphemics. Basic word-formation norms

The norms of the literary language provide a uniform understanding of the text and the continuity of culture. The norms of the literary language cover the entirety of speech activity and oppose soloisms - violations of the grammatical, logical, semantic coherence of speech, as well as non-literary speech - dialects, vernacular, various kinds of social and professional jargon, taboo expressions, speech clogging foreign words and turns, archaisms and unjustified speech creation in the form of neologisms.

According to the scope of the norms of the literary language, they are divided into general (language norms) and particular (speech norms). General norms apply to any statements, and private ones - to works of certain types of literature, for example, poetic works, documents, etc.

General rules include:

¾ orthoepic norms of oral speech, which are divided into phonetic (norms for pronouncing words and phrases) and prosodic (norms for constructing intonation), for example, stress in the word provision on the third syllable;

¾ morphological norms for constructing words, for example, plural from the word officer - officers with an emphasis on the third syllable;

¾ word-formation norms, for example, the formation of the condition of the verb from a noun to condition with a sound and, accordingly, the letter o in the root, and not to condition;

¾ lexical norms for the use of words and set phrases in certain meanings, for example, the word sign means "relating to a sign, having the function of a sign", and the word significant means "having a significant meaning", so you cannot say "significant speech of the president", but "significant or Significant Presidential Speech"; or: "God grant we overcome our very difficult socio-economic and political problems" - problems can be solved.

¾ logical-syntactic norms for constructing phrases and sentences that regulate the correct semantic connection of the elements of statements. For example, if an obligatory element of a phrase is omitted, an indeterminacy of meaning is created:

"Please, the one who contributed can speak out. Who contributed? ... Who would like to from other positions? Please give me an opportunity ...";

¾ proper syntactic norms that regulate stable formal connections of words in phrases and sentences; violation of these norms leads to indistinguishability of syntactic meanings and impoverishment of the meaning of the phrase: "The head of the plant security reported on the preparation of activities for the plant to clean up the territory";

¾ spelling rules governing the spelling of words; violation of spelling norms makes it difficult to understand written speech;

¾ punctuation norms that regulate the division of sentences and provide correct understanding structure of the utterance.

General norms of the literary language are studied in the relevant sections general course Russian language and in the course of stylistics.

The rules for constructing documents, public speeches, scientific essays, letters, works of art, etc. belong to private norms.

Bibliography:

Syntax. Basic units of syntax

1. Grammar of the Russian language. M., 1954, 1960 - Vol. 2, parts 1 and 2.

2. Modern Russian language in three parts / V.V. Babaitseva, L.Yu. Maksimov. M, 1987.

3. Chesnokova L.D. Connections of words in modern Russian. M., 1980.

4. Valgina N.S. Syntax of the modern Russian language. M., 2008.

5. Lekant P.A. The syntax of a simple sentence in modern Russian. M., 2004.

Morphemics. Basic word-formation norms

1. Arutyunova N. D. On the concept of a word-formation system. - Philological Sciences, 1960, No. 2.

2. Vinogradov VV Word formation in its relation to grammar and lexicology (based on Russian and related languages). - Fav. works. Studies in Russian grammar. M., 1995.

3. Zemskaya E. A. Modern Russian language. Word formation. M., 2003.

4. Protchenko I. F. Vocabulary and word formation of the Russian language of the Soviet era. M., 2005.