Words about earthquake. Associations to the word «Earthquake. Modern explanatory dictionary

28.09.2020

EARTHQUAKE, noun. Geogr. earth tremors and vibrations earth's surface resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust and upper mantle and transmitted over long distances

Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

EARTHQUAKE, earthquakes, cf. Strong fluctuation of the earth's crust, caused by causes of a volcanic or tectonic nature.

Modern explanatory dictionary

EARTHQUAKE, tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust or upper mantle and transmitted over long distances in the form of elastic vibrations. The intensity of earthquakes is estimated in seismic points (see Seismic scale), magnitude is used for the energy classification of earthquakes (see Richter scale). There are two main seismic belts: the Pacific, which encircles the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and the Mediterranean, stretching across the south of Eurasia from the Iberian Peninsula to the west to the Malay Arch. in the east. Within the oceans, mid-ocean ridges are characterized by significant seismic activity. The most famous catastrophic earthquakes: Lisbon 1755, California 1906, Messina 1908, Ashgabat 1948, Chile 1960, Armenian 1988, Iranian 1990.

EARTHQUAKE, tremors and vibrations of the earth's surface resulting from sudden displacements and ruptures in the earth's crust and upper mantle and transmitted over long distances. General information Strong earthquakes are catastrophic, yielding in the number of victims only to typhoons and significantly (tens of times) ahead of volcanic eruptions. The material damage of one devastating earthquake can amount to hundreds of millions of dollars. The number of weak earthquakes is much greater than the number of strong ones. So, out of hundreds of thousands of earthquakes that occur annually on Earth, only a few are catastrophic. They release about 1020 J of potential seismic energy, which is only 0.01% of the thermal energy of the Earth radiated into outer space. Where and why earthquakes occur Territorial distribution of earthquakes is uneven. It is determined by the movement and interaction of lithospheric plates. The main seismic belt, in which up to 80% of all seismic energy is released, is located in the Pacific Ocean in the region of deep-sea trenches, where cold lithospheric plates are moving under the continent. The rest of the energy is released in the Eurasian fold belt at the collision sites of the Eurasian plate with the Indian and African plates and in the areas of mid-ocean ridges under conditions of lithosphere extension (see Rift world system). Earthquake Parameters Earthquake sources are located at depths of up to 700 km, but most of the seismic energy (3/4) is released in sources located at depths of up to 70 km. The size of the source of catastrophic earthquakes can reach 100x1000 km. Its position and the place where the masses begin to move (hypocenter) are determined by recording seismic waves that occur during earthquakes (for weak earthquakes, the focus and hypocenter coincide). The projection of the hypocenter onto the earth's surface is called the epicenter. Around it is the area of greatest destruction (epicentral, or pleistoseist, area). Earthquake intensity The intensity of earthquakes on the surface is measured in points and depends on the depth of the source and the magnitude of the earthquake, which serves as a measure of its energy. The maximum known value of the magnitude approaches 9. The magnitude is related to the total energy of the earthquake, but this dependence is not direct, but logarithmic, with an increase in magnitude per unit, the energy increases by 100 times, i.e., with a shock with a magnitude of 6, 100 times more energy is released than at magnitude 5, and 10,000 more than at magnitude 4. Often in the media reporting on seismic disasters, the magnitude scale (Richter scale) and the seismic intensity scale, measured in seismic points, are identified, i.e. j. journalists reporting 12 on the "Richter scale" are confusing magnitude with intensity. The intensity is the greater, the closer the source is located to the surface, so, for example, if the source of an earthquake with a magnitude of 8 is located at a depth of 10 km, then on the surface the intensity will be 11-12 points; with the same magnitude, but at a depth of 40-50 km, the impact on the surface decreases to 9-10 points. Seismic Scales Seismic movements are complex but classifiable. There are a large number of seismic scales that can be reduced to three main groups. In Russia, the most widely used in the world 12-point scale MSK-64 (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik), dating back to the Merkali-Cankani scale (1902), in Latin America, the 10-point Rossi-Forel scale (1883) is adopted, in Japan - 7-point scale. The assessment of intensity, which is based on everyday consequences of an earthquake, easily distinguishable even by an inexperienced observer, is different in the seismic scales of different countries. For example, in Australia, one of the degrees of shaking is compared to “how a horse rubs against a veranda post”, in Europe the same seismic effect is described as “bells begin to ring”, in Japan there is an “overturned stone lantern”. In the simplest and convenient way sensations and observations are presented in a schematized short descriptive scale (MSK variant) that anyone can use. Score Manifestation on the surface 1 Not felt by anyone, recorded only by seismic instruments 2 Felt sometimes by people who are in a calm state 3 Felt by a few, more pronounced indoors on the upper floors 4 Felt by many (especially indoors), at night some wake up. Possible clinking of dishes, rattling of glasses, slamming of doors 5 Felt by almost everyone, many wake up at night. Rocking of hanging objects, cracks in window panes and plaster 6 Felt by everyone, plaster crumbling, slight destruction of buildings 7 Cracks in plaster and chipping of individual pieces, thin cracks in the walls. Shocks are felt in cars 8 Large cracks in the walls, falling pipes, monuments. Cracks on steep slopes and on damp soil 9 Collapse of walls, roofs in some buildings, breaks in underground pipelines 10 Collapse of many buildings, bending of railway rails. Landslides, landslides, cracks (up to 1 m) in the ground 11 Numerous wide cracks in the ground, landslides in the mountains, collapse of bridges, only a few stone buildings remain stable 12 Significant changes in the relief, deviation of the river flow, objects thrown into the air, total destruction of structures As the influence of earthquakes extends far Strong earthquakes can be felt at a distance of a thousand or more kilometers. So in aseismic Moscow, from time to time, shocks with an intensity of up to 3 points are observed, serving as an "echo" of catastrophic Carpathian earthquakes in the Vrancea mountains in Romania, the same earthquakes in Moldavia, close to Romania, are felt as 7-8 points. Duration of earthquakes The duration of earthquakes is different, often the number of earthquakes forms a swarm of earthquakes, including previous (foreshocks) and subsequent (aftershocks) shocks. The distribution of the strongest shock (the main earthquake) within the swarm is random. The magnitude of the strongest aftershock is 1.2 less than that of the main shock, these aftershocks are accompanied by their secondary series of subsequent shocks. For example, an earthquake that occurred on about. Lissa in the Mediterranean, lasted three years, the total number of shocks for the period 1870-73 amounted to 86 thousand. Catastrophic earthquakes Of the huge number of earthquakes that occur annually, only one has a magnitude equal to or greater than 8, ten - 7-7.9, one hundred - 6-6.9. Any earthquake with a magnitude of St. 7 could be a major disaster. However, it can also go unnoticed if it occurs in a desert area. Thus, the grandiose natural disaster - the Gobi-Altai earthquake (1957; magnitude 8.5, intensity 11-12 points) - remains almost unexplored, although due to the enormous force, small depth of the source and the lack of vegetation cover, this earthquake left on the surface the most a complete and diverse picture (2 lakes appeared, a huge overthrust in the form of a stone wave up to 10 m high instantly formed, the maximum displacement along the fault reached 300 m, etc.). An area 50-100 km wide and 500 km long (like Denmark or Holland) was completely destroyed. If this earthquake had occurred in a densely populated area, the number of victims could have been measured in the millions. The consequences of one of the strongest earthquakes (magnitude could be 9), which occurred in the oldest region of Europe - Lisbon - in 1755 and captured a territory of over 2.5 million km2, were so grandiose (50 thousand out of 230 thousand citizens died, in the harbor a rock grew, the coastal bottom became dry land, the outline of the coast of Portugal changed) and impressed the Europeans so much that Voltaire responded to it with the “Poem about the death of Lisbon” (1756, Russian translation 1763). Apparently, the impression of this catastrophe was so strong that Voltaire in the poem challenged the doctrine of pre-established world harmony. Strong earthquakes, no matter how rare they are, never leave contemporaries indifferent. Thus, in W. Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" (1595), the nurse recalls the earthquake of 1580, which, apparently, the author himself experienced. Why do people die in earthquakes If earthquakes occur at sea, they can cause destructive waves - tsunamis, most often devastating the coasts of the Pacific Ocean, as happened in 1933 in Japan and in 1952 in Kamchatka. The total number of earthquake victims on the planet over the past 500 years has amounted to about 5 million people, almost half of them are in China. So in 1556 in the Chinese Prov. An earthquake with a magnitude of 8.1 killed 830,000 people in Shaanxi; according to official Chinese data (according to American seismologists, up to 1 million people). Exceptionally severe consequences are also associated with earthquakes in 1737 in Calcutta (India), when 300 thousand people died, in 1908 in Messina (Italy) - 120 thousand people. , in 1923 in Tokyo - 143 thousand people. Large losses during earthquakes are usually associated with high population density, primitive construction methods, especially characteristic of poor areas, and it is not at all necessary that the earthquake be strong (for example, in 1960, up to 15 thousand people died as a result of a seismic shock with a magnitude of 5.8 . man in Agadir, Morocco). Natural phenomena - landslides, cracks play a lesser role. The catastrophic consequences of an earthquake can be prevented by improving the quality of buildings, since most of the people die under their rubble. It is also useful to take advice - during an earthquake, do not run out into the street, but rather take cover in doorway or under a sturdy slab or plank (table) capable of supporting the weight of the collapsing load. Earthquake forecasting and zoning The problem of earthquake forecasting based on observations of precursors (predicting not only the location but, most importantly, the time of a seismic event) is far from being solved, since none of the precursors can be considered reliable. Isolated cases of exceptionally successful timely forecasts are known, for example, in 1975 in China, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.3 was very accurately predicted. In earthquake-prone areas, an important role is played by the construction of earthquake-resistant structures (see Anti-seismic construction). The division of the territory according to the degree of potential seismic hazard is part of the task of seismic zoning. It is based on the use of historical data (on the frequency of seismic events, their strength) and instrumental observations of earthquakes, geological and geographical mapping and information about the movement of the earth's crust. The zoning of the territory is also connected with the problem of insurance against earthquakes. Seismograph Instrumental observations first appeared in China, where in 132 Chang Heng invented a seismoscope, which was a skillfully made vessel. On the outer side of the vessel, with a pendulum placed inside, the heads of dragons were engraved in a circle, holding balls in their mouths. When the pendulum swings from an earthquake, one or more balls fall into the open mouths of the frogs, placed at the base of the vessels so that the frogs can swallow them. A modern seismograph is a set of instruments that register ground vibrations during an earthquake and convert them into an electrical signal recorded on seismograms in analog and digital form. However, as before, the main sensitive element is a pendulum with a load. Seismic service Permanent observations of earthquakes are carried out by the seismic service. The modern world network includes St. 2000 fixed seismic stations, whose data are systematically published in seismological bulletins and catalogs. In addition to stationary stations, expeditionary seismographs are used, including those installed at the bottom of the oceans. Expeditionary seismographs were also sent to the Moon (where 5 seismographs annually record up to 3000 moonquakes), as well as to Mars and Venus. Anthropogenic earthquakes 20th century technogenic human activity, which has taken on a planetary scale, has become the cause of induced (artificially induced) seismicity, which occurs, for example. , during nuclear explosions (tests at the Nevada test site initiated thousands of seismic shocks), during the construction of reservoirs, the filling of which sometimes provokes strong earthquakes. This happened in India when the construction of the Koyna reservoir caused a magnitude 8 earthquake that killed 177 people. Seismology is the study of earthquakes. Seismic waves generated during earthquakes are also used to study the internal structure of the Earth, achievements in this area have served as the basis for the development of seismic exploration methods. Earthquakes have been observed since ancient times. Detailed historical descriptions that reliably testify to earthquakes from ser. 1 thousand BC e., given by the Japanese. Great attention was also paid to seismicity by ancient scientists - Aristotle and others. Systematic instrumental observations begun in the 2nd half. The 19th century led to seismology becoming an independent science (B. B. Golitsyn, E. Wiechert, B. Gutenberg, A. Mohorovichich, F. Omori, and others).

Help pliz))))))) Translate into English Goths - representatives of the gothic subculture,

originated in the late 70s of the 20th century on the wave of post-punk. A distinctive feature of the subculture is a special worldview that can be described as a "dark" perception of the world. The gothic subculture is diverse and heterogeneous, due to the fact that it cultivates individuality, however, many common features stand out for it, such as a love for gothic music (gothic rock, death rock, gothic metal, darkwave and other similar styles) , gloomy image (black color dominates, Iroquois, leather clothes, paraphernalia, symbols (ankh), fangs, lenses of unnatural colors, etc.), interest in mysticism and esotericism, decadence, misanthropy, melancholy, depressive states, love for horror - Literature and films. In our time, the gothic subculture has divided into 2 streams: Mopey Goths and Perky Goths, their difference lies in the fact that the former are true supporters of this culture, both its visual and "internal" parts, and the latter only inherit them in style and are not gloomy, depressive fans of "non-standard black romance" and isolation. The early Goths differed from the punks only in the black dominant color of clothing and hair (with white, red, blue or purple inserts) and silver jewelry. They wore torn clothes and even mohawks, although the Mohawk of the Goths was usually black and much wider than that of the punks (shaved only on the sides, at the temples). Many called them Dark Punks (Dark Punks) for their external similarity and at the same time a gloomy difference. Also, the Goths often used mesh in their clothes (usually the sleeves for men) and had an original make-up style: a very white face with a lot of black eyeliner (both men and women). Hair was usually twisted and combed. Initially, men had short and combed hair, but towards the end of the 80s, long black hair became preferable, and now shaved on the sides and sticking up the hair of the Goths can be found much less often than long flowing ones. Makeup has remained part of the image, but the clothing has diversified, with some now wearing clothes with 18th or early 19th century influences, others wearing vinyl, leather and mesh. And some of them wear both, although rarely at the same time. Black and white remain the dominant colors, although sometimes red, blue, purple or green (more common in Cyber Goths) also appear. The most used materials remain silk, wrinkled velvet, leather, vinyl and mesh. Purple, blue or dark green hair color is also very popular. Goths have their own image, which has recently undergone significant changes. No matter how Gothic develops, two main elements remain unchanged: the predominant black color of clothing (sometimes with elements of other colors), as well as exclusively silver jewelry (as a sign of contempt for gold, a symbol of ordinary, hackneyed values, the color of senselessly shed human blood, and also the color of the sun, silver is the color of the moon). The girls have a bright, expressive Vamp style - dense black cosmetics, eyeliners, a range of lipstick and nail colors - from bright red (bloody) to black. Everything is catchy, sexy and strict. Goths (Goth girls) every day look like a seductive nun or a medieval queen or whatever. The Goths, working in an environment where one cannot afford an extreme or individual approach to the image, developed the “corporate goth” style (Slave Goth or Corporate Slave Goth): black business clothes, discreet jewelry. Although gloomy colors predominate in Gothic clothing, it is very diverse in its manifestations: from an ordinary leather skirt for a girl to a jester's harlequin outfit for a young man. The general context brings together many styles and styles of clothing, although leather remains the most common and used material. Both a man and a goth woman can dress almost the same - black cloaks or camisoles with a wide collar turned up, a la Count Dracula are acceptable for both. Girls most often wear corsets and Long Dresses. Romantic elements of past centuries often appear in the Gothic image: lace, jabot, velvet, corsets, etc.

Please help, given nouns and verbs.

a finger
to finger (touch with fingers)
an escape (escape)
to escape (run away, avoid)
a wish (desire)
to wish (wish)
a shape (form)
to shape (shape)
You need to make 2 sentences, including both the noun and the adjective in the sentence. But if that makes things difficult. It is possible separately. Many thanks for the early, connoisseurs of the English language;)

guess a 7-letter noun/verb denoting a negative emotion, the first part of which is a prefix with a negative meaning, and the second part is

verb expressing positive emotion.

eats in English. . . . I. Rewrite the following sentences. Translate them into Russian. Determine by grammar

signs of what part of speech the words ending in -s are and what function this ending performs, i.e. does it serve:
a) an indicator of the 3rd person of the singular person of the verb in Present Indefinite;
b) a feature of the plural of a noun;
c) an indicator of the possessive case of a noun

1. My brother has many friends.
a) -s b) -s c) -s
2. This is my sister's book.
a) -s b) -s c) -s

3. We often buy tomatoes and potatoes in the supermarket.
a) -s b) -s c) -s
4. Ann lives in Moscow.
a) -s b) -s c) -s
5. I am always in time for the lessons.
a) -s b) -s c) -s

II Rewrite the following sentences and translate them, paying attention to the peculiarities of the translation into Russian of the definitions expressed by the noun.
1. There are different types of rocket motors.
2. Where is the sports goods department? It's on the fourth floor.
3. What is the room temperature?
4. This scientist got two State prizes.
5. There are some students on the sport ground.

Study the topic: degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
III. Run a test. Translate the sentences into Russian in writing.
1. She ___ than her sister.
a) taller b) taller c) more taller
2. You are even ___ than before.
a) more beautiful b) beautiful c) the most beautiful
3. I earn ___ than a postman.
a) a little b) the least c) less
4. She is the ____ pupil in the school.
a) most intelligent b) more intelligent c) less intelligent
5. The ___ is the day, the ____ is the night.
a) taller … smaller b) shorter … longer c) more … worse

Study the topic: indefinite and negative pronouns.
IV. Run a test. Translate the sentences into Russian in writing.
1. He asked me ____ questions.
a) some b) any c) not any
2. I haven't ___ money at all.
a) no b) some c) any
3. . Are the ____ pictures on the wall?
a) some b) any c) not any
4. There are ____ textbooks on the desk.
a) no b) no any c) any
5. You can buy stamps at ___ post office.
a) some b) no c) any

Study the topic: the times of the Indefinite group (Present Indefinite, Past Indefinite, Future Indefinite).
V. Run the test. Translate the following sentences in writing:
1. I ___ John and Mary last week.
a) see b) saw c) shall see
2. I ___ live far from the center of town.
a) aren't b) don't c) isn't
3. My boss ____ away for the next three days.
a) are b) were c) will be
4. Do you think this style ____ me?
a) suit b) suit c) shall suit
5. Harry ___ ill last week but now he is better.
a) is b) was c) will be

Section 5 Is the Earth a dangerous place?

76 Listen and read the words. Label the pictures.
Disasters:
a) an earthquake

b) hurricane
c) tornado
d) volcano
f) floods
f) drought

77 Match the words and texts. Listen and check your answers.

Match the words to the texts. Listen to the tape and check (howl answers.
1) - B) An earthquake is an unexpected shaking of the earth.
2) - C) Hurricane - strong wind or storm.
3) - D) Tornado - a strong wind in a funnel of air that spins with great speed.
4) - E) Volcano - a mountain with a hole in the middle, which is called a crater. Sometimes lava and gases are ejected from the crater.
5) - A) Flood - a large number of water covering land.
6) - F) Drought - a long period of dry weather when there is not enough water.

78 Listen to the tape and complete the table.

79 Read and translate the phrases. Use them in your sentences.

80 You're going to read a text about an earthquake. Before reading, discuss with your partner what you know about an earthquake. Write down the facts you talked about.

81 Read the text and find out if it contains new information for you. Which?
Earthquake in Yankee
"I was at school," Juan said. “The date May 31, 1970 was written on the board in large white letters. The letters began to dance before my eyes. But there were only a few empty cars outside.”
"Did you fall asleep?"
“No, I looked out the window. It was noisy there, like a big truck was driving down the street. But there were only a few empty cars outside.”,
"What was making the noise?"
“He came from the earth. Cars started jumping up and down. Then the clock in the classroom fell off the wall and the window shattered. I was frightened. I ran out of the school into the street. As I ran, houses began to fall. The ground moved under my feet. I knew that..."
"What did you know?"
“I knew it was an earthquake. I ran to the fields. I heard rumblings and screams behind me. I turned around only when I reached the second field. I couldn't believe my eyes. Almost all buildings were on the ground. Ahead of me, the land moved up and down like the sea.”
"What did you do?"
“At first nothing. Then I heard another sound, like guns rattling. He came from the mountains. I looked up as the nearest mountain started flying towards me! I ran and swam across the river. On the opposite bank, I started running again. A strong wind carried me forward. Then earth and snow fell on me ... "" Snow?"
“Yes, snow from the mountains. The earthquake broke off a large piece of the mountain ... "
“How many people died?” Mark asked.
“50,000 people died and another 100,000 were injured. About a million people have lost their homes, ie. every thirteenth inhabitant of Peru. I think it was the worst earthquake that ever happened."
Mark looked back at his notebook.
“In 1556 there was an earthquake in China. Then 830,000 people died. In 1923 in Japan, 142,000 people died in an earthquake."

82 Answer the questions.
1. When did the earthquake occur in Ungay?
2. How did it start?
3. What did Juan see and hear?
4. What happened to the boy?
5. Was the Ungai earthquake the worst?
6. Has there ever been an earthquake or other disaster in your area? Tell us about your experience.

83 Give five nouns, five verbs, five adjectives, and five adverbs to describe an earthquake.

84 Read and study.
past simple
We use the past simple when talking about:
Relation to past habit or state
completed actions with temporary words (see below)

past continuous
We use the past continuous when talking about:
what was in progress during a certain period of time in the past
what happened in the middle of another action or event in the past
Compare:
- Listen! Why didn't you return my calls yesterday? What were you doing at six o'clock in the evening?
- I was waiting for my family at the subway stop at that time.
- What did you do then?
- We went to the theater together.
- I hope you enjoyed it!

85 Put the verbs in the correct form: past continuous or past simple.
A.
1. was playing - Yesterday at five o'clock in the evening she was playing computer games.
2. destroyed - Last spring, a flood destroyed half of the city.
3. was badly hurt - He was badly hurt during an earthquake.
4. was reading - Yesterday morning the web girl was reading a book.
5. was launched - The spacecraft was launched in 1995.

b.
1. were you doing, it started raining, were walking "_.- What were you doing when it started raining?
- We were walking in the park.
2. were doing, came in - Were they doing a crossword puzzle or doing their homework when you yelled?
3. were they standing, saw - Where were they standing when you saw them?
4. was Linda doing, came in - What was Linda doing when I came in?
5. were they working - What were they working on yesterday at five o'clock in the evening?

86 Put the verbs in the correct form: past continuous or past simple.
Example: She was cooking dinner when the earthquake was shaking the city. - She was cooking dinner when the earthquake was shaking the city.
1 The fire destroyed most of the buildings while he was sleeping.
2 When they traveled all over the country they saw a tornado.
3 The girl was shaking with laughter when her mother came in.
4 It was raining heavily when she left the house.
5 Where were you standing when you...heard the scream?
6 When we found the puppy, he was trembling like an aspen leaf.
7 He was writing about disasters when I called him.

87 Read, translate and learn: to destroy / to break / to damage.
1. break - to divide something into parts with sudden force
a) If you break something, it either breaks into pieces or stops working.
b) The boy broke his chair.
c) She fell down the stairs and broke her leg.
d) My watch is broken. I must fix them as soon as possible.
2. destroy - damage something so badly that it can no longer be repaired; destroy.
a) A flood destroyed a small town.
b) During the hurricane, about two hundred houses were destroyed.
c) We were shown a video of the destructive power of a tornado.
d) The earthquake caused severe damage.
3. to damage - to spoil or break something so that it does not work correctly or does not look the same as before.
a) The building was badly damaged by the flood.
b) The drought caused great damage.
c) The hurricane caused damage to houses in the area.
d) You should be aware of the harm that smoking can cause to your health.

88 We work in pairs. Try to explain to your partners what a tornado is. Use exercise 77.

89 Read the text. Use the information from the text while explaining.

Tornadoes are the strongest storms. Nobody can predict what they might do.
Tornadoes destroy houses, carry away cars and telephone booths. Tornadoes are made up of very strong winds. They can reach speeds of 320 kilometers per hour. That is why they are so dangerous.
During one of the tornadoes in Russia, people saw money flying from the sky. At least a thousand coins fell from the clouds. The wind picked up earth and coins from some buried treasure.
Tornadoes occur all over the world, but especially in the US. In central regions, tornadoes are likely to be more common than anywhere else in the world.
Tornadoes happen in the spring. The most likely time for these dangerous storms to start is on a hot afternoon or evening. Large clouds appear in the sky. They get darker and darker. Thunder sounds in the distance. Bright flashes of lightning are visible. The cloud then forms a funnel and begins to rotate. It moves faster and faster. The faster it moves, the louder noise. If the funnel touches the ground, it picks up the weight it can. Strong winds tornadoes demolish almost everything in their path.
Luckily, tornadoes can be predicted, giving people a better chance of protecting themselves.

Presumably composed of partially molten rock.

"Ahah". A type of lava flow that gives an uneven, cracked surface after solidification.

Basalt. Dark volcanic rock formed when lava cools.

Volcanic mud flow. A mixture of volcanic ash, rock fragments, melting ice and snow flowing down the side of a volcano during an eruption.

volcanic ash. Very small particles of rock and lava formed during a violent eruption.

Geyser. Fountain hot water and steam formed by groundwater heated by hot rock.

hydrothermal conduit. An opening in the sea floor, usually near the median ridge, from where heated, mineral-rich water flows into the cold waters of the ocean.

"Hot spot". Region earth's interior, where thermal energy, rising from the mantle, burns through the earth's crust, forming on the surface.

Hot spring. Hot surging to the surface of the land or seabed, heated by hot rock underground.

slab boundary. The edge of the plate where most earthquakes occur and volcanoes are most common.

ground water. Rain or sea water seeped into the ground through cracks or small gaps between rock particles.

volcano mouth. A hole in the earth's surface through which magma, volcanic gases, or steam erupt.

Bark. The solid outer shell of the Earth.

Crater. A deep depression that occurs around the vents of some volcanoes.

Lava. Magma erupted to the surface of the earth.

lava pillow. Lava solidifying into pillows. It acquires this form because it is poured into water and cools very quickly.

lava flow. A river of molten rock flowing out of a volcano during some eruptions.

lava fountain. A jet of liquid lava that shoots up under the pressure of volcanic gases accumulated in the earth's crust.

Lithosphere. The solid layer of the earth that includes the earth's crust and upper part mantle. broken into a series of huge pieces called plates.

Magma. Molten (liquid) rock in the interior of the Earth, consisting primarily of molten minerals, dissolved gases, and water.

magma chamber. An area under a volcano where magma accumulates.

Mantle. The most powerful layer of the Earth, lying between the crust and the core. Consists of the lower mantle, asthenosphere and part of the lithosphere.

Slow displacement. Gradual movement of rock along a fault without causing an earthquake.

Mineral. Natural substance of a certain chemical composition which is of inorganic origin. The aggregate of mineral particles forms rocks.

ocean trench. A very deep underwater valley that forms at the boundary of two plates that move towards each other, with one of them sinking under the other.

Precipitation. Pulverized rock, such as sand or silt, that is crushed and deposited in layers on the seafloor by the action of wind, water, or ice.

island arc. A chain of volcanic islands formed near the boundary of two plates moving towards each other.

earthquake source. A fault point where an abrupt displacement of rock occurs, causing an earthquake.

"Pa-hoe-hoe". A type of lava flow that, after solidification, has a smooth or wrinkled surface.

Ash. Cm. volcanic ash.

Pyroclastic flow (also called "nyue ardant"). incredibly hot gas and volcanic ash, rushing at great speed along the slope of the volcano during its eruption.

pyroclasts. Pieces of rock, lava and volcanic ash ejected by a volcano during a violent eruption.

Plate. One of the huge pieces of the lithosphere, in their totality forming the solid surface of the Earth.

aftershocks. Minor earthquakes and ground tremors caused by subsidence of rock after a major earthquake.

Fault. A break or fissure in rock along which movement occurs.

Soil erosion. The process that occurs during an earthquake, when seismic waves shake wet sand or other loose sediments, making the soil extremely unstable due to supersaturation of its upper layer with moisture.

Seabed expansion. The process of expansion of the oceans due to the fact that the plates that form the bottom move apart, and magma, as it rises, forms a new ocean floor at the mid-ridges.

seismic waves. Shock waves propagating from the source of an earthquake in all directions across the Earth.

Median, or mid-oceanic, ridge. A chain of underwater volcanoes that form on the ocean floor at the boundary of two moving apart plates during the expansion of the sea floor.

Subductive zone. A zone at the boundary of two plates where one of the plates sinks under the other.

Plate tectonics. Processes that occur when plates move along the asthenosphere and change the location, size and shape of continents and oceans.

Fumarole. A small hole in the ground through which volcanic gases escape.

Tsunami. A series of huge ocean waves generated during a strong earthquake or volcanic eruption on the seabed or on land close to the coast.

Mercalli scale. A scale based primarily on eyewitness accounts that measures the intensity of an earthquake or the number of shocks at various points on the earth's surface.

Richter scale. The scale used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake, that is, the amount of energy released during it.

Epicenter. A point on the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.

Core. The central part of the Earth that lies under the mantle. It is divided into an outer core, which is in a molten state, and an inner core, presumably solid.