Wars of Egypt and the role of the military in the fate of the country. The era of the pharaohs: the ancient Egyptians during the internecine wars
About 4,000 years ago, a major uprising broke out in Egypt. A colorful story written by a nobleman named Ipuser has been preserved about these events. This written monument is called - "Re-chenie(i.e. story) Ipusera". True, this is not a historical chronicle, but a literary work written under the impression of what he saw.
The poor, peasants and artisans rebelled against the power of the pharaoh, nobles, officials, scribes. Slaves also took part in the uprising.
Hyksos invasion
Most likely, the uprising was crushed, but it certainly was not the only one. The uprisings weakened the country, but around 1700 B.C. the country was struck by a new disaster. Aliens invaded Egypt from Asia -hyksos. They captured the Nile Delta, and then subjugated southern Egypt. For almost a century and a half, the Egyptians lost their independence.
The fight against the Hyksos was led by the rulers of the city Thebes, located in southern Egypt. To 1550 BC the whole country was liberated. Thebes became the capital of Egypt, the rulers of Thebes became pharaohs. The Theban priests gained great influence. In Thebes, the sun god was revered under the name Amon. The main god of all Egypt began to be called Amon-Ra.
The army and weapons of the ancient Egyptians
In the fight against the Hyksos of Egypt, not much was adopted from them. Horses and war chariots appeared, with a driver and an archer. Harnessed by a pair of horses, the chariots delivered swift blows to the enemy army, breaking up its ranks. Even the pharaohs themselves fought on chariots.
And yet, the main role was still played by the foot army, armed with bronze and copper weapons. Warriors wore shells made of leather or thick linen with sewn metal plates, shields rounded at the top. Spearheads, battle axes and long daggers were made of bronze. This infantry was called heavily armed. There were more squads light-armed foot soldiers - archers and spearmen, throwing dart(short spears).
| Conquests of the Egyptian pharaohs |
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| Ancient Egyptian warrior. Modern drawing |
Warriors were recruited throughout Egypt - one out of ten adult men. Mercenaries appeared. Among them were many Libyans, inhabitants of the Libyan desert, located west of Egypt.
Conquests of Thutmose III
Beyond the Sinai Desert, off the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, stretch Palestine, Phenicia and Syria. Having expelled the Hyksos, the pharaohs began to conquer these countries.
The most famous conqueror was the pharaoh Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC). He lost his father early, and while he was a child, power was seized by his stepmother, the queen Hatshepsut. Under her, Egypt was restored after the invasion of the Hyksos, many beautiful temples were built, and trade flourished. Thutmose has matured. He grew up strong and courageous, aspired to military victories. But the queen, until her death, single-handedly ruled Egypt. Having become the master of the country, Thutmose III (3) immediately moved the Egyptian troops to Asia.
The pharaoh made the first campaign against the city Megiddo in Palestine. He defeated the troops of the Syrian and Palestinian rulers and after a 7-month siege took the city. Information about 15 campaigns of Thutmose III (3) in Asia has been preserved. Egyptian troops reached the Euphrates - "the river flowing in the opposite direction." So the Egyptians called the Euphrates, surprised that, unlike the Nile, it flows from north to south.
Thutmose III (3) did not limit himself to conquests in Asia. He, having conquered Nubia, a country located in the region of the Nile rapids, and the tribes of the Libyans who lived west of the Nile. The boundaries of Egyptian possessions now stretched from north to south for 3200 kilometers - from the Euphrates to Nubia. In the XV (15) century BC. Egypt became the most powerful state in the world.
The robbery of the conquered countries
The Egyptian army plundered and ravaged the captured cities and countries. The vanquished were levied tribute. They had to send metals, precious wood, handicrafts, grain, livestock and even people to Egypt. From Nubia, the pharaohs received gold and ivory, from Syria - copper and silver. Egypt was filled with captives turned into slaves.
The looted riches allowed the pharaohs to deploy extensive construction. Thebes, the capital of Egypt, became a huge city with temples and palaces of pharaohs and nobility.
The pharaohs generously rewarded the nobility and military leaders, but the priests were especially rich. The majestic ruins of the temple of Amun-Ra in Thebes have survived to this day. This is the largest temple not only in Egypt, but throughout the world. There are 134 columns in its main hall. Some of them are 21 meters high and 10 meters in girth.
Akhenaten
The priests of the god Amon-Ra accumulated huge wealth - large land holdings, tens of thousands of slaves, gold, jewelry. Temples owned all this in abundance. Priestly positions were often inherited. Therefore, the priests were less and less considered with the pharaohs. material from the site
But here in XIV (14) century BC the most unusual of all pharaohs came to the throne. He is known by a name that he coined for himself, Akhenaten. The young pharaoh announced that there was only one god worthy of worship in the world - Aten, and he himself is the son and high priest of that god. Akhenaten means "pleasant to the Aten". Aten was depicted as a solar disk with rays ending in palms.
Many temples of the former gods were closed in the country. Wishing to undermine the influence of the Theban priests, Akhenaten built a new capital — Akhetaten(Horizon of the Aten). Yet the priests were victorious. While Akhenaten was alive, they recognized Aton, but when the pharaoh died, Amon-Ra was again declared the supreme god in Egypt. The population of the country was not ready to believe in a single God. The city of Akhetaten was abandoned, the name of the rebel pharaoh was cursed. The struggle between the priests and the pharaohs, between the Egyptian nobles, weakened Egypt. In the future, the Egyptian pharaohs lost all the conquered lands.
Questions about this item:
Wars and economy
Each war has its own socio-economic roots, is closely linked with the development of the economy, the state and culture. In ancient Egypt, the development of the economy was directly related to the conduct of predatory, predatory wars. It was the wars that led to the rapid development of the economy in Egypt.
The socio-economic causes of the most ancient wars are the lack of manpower, slaves, who were the easiest to get with the help of war. The development of crafts, agriculture and exchange required additional raw materials. Wars that were once fought for the defense of territories are now waged for the sake of robbery and become a constant trade. Predatory expeditions to the north, south, west, the purpose of which was to capture slaves, were of great importance for the development of the economy. In parallel with these countries, exchange and trade developed. "And here we see how closely the military policy of Egypt was intertwined with the expansion of Egyptian trade: the need to penetrate into the southern countries entailed a series of wars with the tribes that inhabited the regions lying to the east and south of Egypt."
The Middle Kingdom is characterized by the general development of the economy. Agriculture, farming, crafts and trade are developing. For production, both the natural resources of Egypt and additional resources supplied by the conquered states are used. With the development of trade, trade routes began to play an important role - old fortified and new (for example, Wadi - Hammamat, connecting the Nile Valley with the Red Sea coast).
The development of productive forces, which caused the flourishing of the economy, required the development of exchange and the attraction of a new labor force, i.e., slaves. "This explains the development of the military policy of the Egyptian pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom, who considered it their duty not only to defend Egypt from the attacks of the warlike tribes of Libya, Nubia and neighboring Asian regions, but also to undertake offensive campaigns against neighboring peoples. The purpose of the campaigns was, first of all, robbery, the capture of a wide variety of valuables, the most diverse production, gold, livestock, slaves, then the seizure of territories, important sources of raw materials, and, finally, the consolidation of dominant positions on the most important trade routes for Egypt.
The Hyksos invasion markedly weakened Egypt economically. But despite the loss of the Delta, Upper Egypt to some extent managed to maintain its economy, the functioning of the irrigation system of agriculture, crafts and even foreign trade, the main direction of which was now the south. Thus, the people, the economy, and even the culture of Egypt withstood the onslaught of the Hyksos. The Egyptians were able to drive out the Hyksos and unite the country into a single entity. This led to the rapid growth of economic life, especially since there were all the possibilities for this. Again, additional labor was needed. "The slave-owning economy of economically growing and growing Egypt needed a new influx of a large number of slaves, as well as the delivery of various types of imported foreign raw materials, mainly metal." The growth of productive forces required the expansion of foreign trade, and hence new conquests. But the rapid development of the economy and close ties with neighbors, as well as the use of cultural achievements and borrowing in the field of military affairs, contributed to the wide scope of the military policy of Egypt, which quickly turned into a major military power. Having expelled the Hyksos, the Egyptians penetrate into Syria and Palestine.
"The military and predatory campaigns undertaken by Ahmose in Phenicia and Palestine again filled the treasury of the pharaoh with gold, silver and other valuables taken from neighboring countries in the form of booty and tribute." The conquests in Syria, Nubia, Libya created all the prerequisites for the further deployment of an aggressive policy in neighboring territories. The gradual penetration of the Egyptians into Palestine, Syria and Phoenicia from the southwest contributed to the economic rapprochement between Egypt and Mitanni. Egypt received gold, lapis lazuli, precious stones, bronze, oils, fabrics, clothes, chariots, horses, etc. from Mitanni through trade. From the Hittite countries, the Egyptian nobility received silver, lapis lazuli, slaves, and iron. During this period, trade with the islands of the Aegean develops. Mostly Cretan handicrafts, precious stones and metals are imported to Egypt. Robbery, the capture of booty and the receipt of tribute or gifts were closely associated with this trade. The gifts sent by the lords of distant states are an opportunity to pay off the invasion of the Egyptian army. "But nevertheless, it is precisely this development of a kind of primitive predatory trade that largely explains the broad aggressive policy of the Egyptian pharaohs of the XVIII dynasty, which in its development led to major conquest campaigns ..."
Thus, the development of the economy led to broad conquests in the Middle and New Kingdoms. And the resources obtained by the war, in turn, contributed to the recovery of the economy. Successful wars contributed to the development of all sectors of the economy - agriculture, crafts, trade. In addition, distant countries sent numerous gifts.
The impact of wars on social relations in ancient Egyptian society
The wars of conquest entailed a large influx of slaves, who were used in temple and palace households, in agriculture and other areas. Slaves were brought to Egypt from all over the East. The number of Nubians, Libyans and Semites from Western Asia was especially large. It is noteworthy that not all prisoners of war became slaves. Many of them managed to make a military career. Already in the Middle Kingdom, Nubian and Libyan mercenaries formed detachments in the army. And the basis of the fleet was Phoenician mercenaries or captive pirates. Among the strata of the population, slave owners and slaves can be distinguished. But later, new strata of society also appear, strengthening especially during the period of the New Kingdom.
In the New Kingdom, slavery reached its highest peak. The developing economy of Egypt required a huge amount of labor. Conquest campaigns were aimed mainly at the extraction of slaves. "However, this slaveholding, even in the era of the New Kingdom, still retained a largely undeveloped, domestic character"
With the development of the economy, the importance of free artisans and merchants increases. Gradually, a closed social stratum of professional artisans is formed, passing on their knowledge and positions from generation to generation. Civil officials emerge from this environment, reaching an influential position with wealth, connections, gifts to the pharaoh and his entourage. These layers were especially strengthened during the 18th dynasty, when the rulers needed support in the fight against the nobility. Along with these sections of the population, an influential class of the slave-owning aristocracy appears. It expanded considerably with an increase in the number of officials, both military and civilian. This class included representatives of the court and service nobility, officials, priesthood, tribal nobility, as well as military commanders. It is with the increasing role of war in society that representatives of the military nobility enter the ruling class. Strengthening this class was facilitated by the right to transfer their positions to children. At the end of the New Kingdom, a special layer of the highest court aristocracy was formed, which became the most solid support of the pharaoh.
From ancient times, the society and rulers were greatly influenced by the priesthood. It also develops and very soon becomes an integral part of Egyptian society. We can say that its development as a class was also influenced by wars of conquest. It was the priests and temple households who were given most of the looted wealth, including slaves. And they, in turn, justified the robbery and ruin of the occupied territories, motivating this with the desire of the gods. For a long time the priestly class was closed, and the property of the temples, that is, the priests themselves, was untouchable. This was his strength as an estate. But during the period of the New Kingdom, there is an active interaction with the cultures of neighboring states. There are also changes in religion. Along with the unchanging old ones, new cults are emerging. The priesthood is weakening somewhat, although it continues to play a prominent role in politics.
During the Late Kingdom, temple facilities were plundered. And even with the advent of the XXVI dynasty, the priesthood can no longer regain its former positions.
So, wars have a significant impact on the social structure of society. With the development of handicrafts and trade, free traders and artisans began to play an important role. The number of officials is increasing, including now the military, the need for an ideological justification of the conquests strengthens the position of the priesthood.
The wars of conquest were caused by the development of the economy, which required a large number of slaves and additional raw materials. This allowed Egypt to develop all spheres of society. Thus, wars became inextricably linked with the well-being of the country. Wars also influenced social changes in society. New classes appear, strata of society, among which are free artisans, serving the nobility, court officials.
Egypt is one of the oldest states in the world, back in 3500 BC. e. there was a developed Egyptian civilization, and around 3100, the king of Upper Egypt, Menes, conquered Lower Egypt, initiating the first dynasty of the pharaohs. Egypt is located in the valley of the Nile River, whose floods provide soil renewal, and as a result - consistently high yields every year. This was the key to the constant replenishment of the royal treasury.
Most of the information about Ancient Egypt is known to us from papyri and inscriptions carved on stones. Since the Egyptians were very sensitive to the afterlife, people prepared for it in advance, including compiling autobiographies. On the basis of these "compositions" we know the most significant events of ancient Egyptian history.
The Egyptian civilization was marked by a high organization of labor, they managed to build majestic pyramids, in which everything was calculated to the smallest detail, the perfectly executed geometry of the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) staggers the imagination of any person even in the 20th century. The excellent level of organization allowed the Egyptians to keep a large army, both to protect their homeland and conquest campaigns. At the same time, internal unrest often arose in Egypt itself: rebellions of the recalcitrant nobility and uprisings of the peasants. To maintain law and order in his own country, the pharaoh needed a strong army.
Egyptian soldiers used copper axes, stone-tipped spears up to two meters long, stone-tipped maces and sickle-shaped swords - "khepesh" as the main weapons. In addition, the warriors used a bow made from antelope horns. Another small weapon used by the Egyptians was the sling. For defense, a shield was used at half the height of a man.
As I have already noted, the Egyptians were distinguished by an excellent organization of labor. This extended to the military as well. During the period of the Middle Kingdom, a clear structure of the Egyptian army was formed: it consisted of detachments of 2, 3 and 10 thousand people. Each detachment was divided into divisions of 6, 40, 60, 100, 400 and 600 soldiers. Unfortunately, I do not have more specific information about the hierarchy of the detachments among the Egyptians and cannot explain their distribution relative to each other (it is clear that a detachment of 6 people could not be part of a detachment of 40 people). In each Egyptian nome1 there were permanent combat units. They were commanded by the ruler of the region - the nomarch. The soldiers in these units were engaged in regular combat training. In battle, the soldiers were built in simple ranks. The system was observed both in battle and in exercises. Over time, a system of weapons of warriors of various types was formed. In battle, the troops were used for their intended purpose, for example, arrows began the battle by shelling the enemy. The Egyptian army had a system of rewarding distinguished soldiers with various awards. The reward could be lands, livestock, slaves and jewelry. There was also the "Golden Praise" - the oldest known military award, apparently reminiscent of modern orders.
The suppression of minor riots was carried out by black Nubians armed with pointed sticks with a curved end for inflicting lacerations, sometimes the end of the stick was made of copper.
In ancient Egypt, there was a developed art of fortification. Usually fortresses were built to protect the borders and had a permanent garrison, reinforced in case of danger. Fortress walls were always reinforced with round towers and ledges for archers.
Being excellent builders of fortresses, the Egyptians knew well the methods of taking defensive structures. They used assault ladders on wheels, which made it easier to install the ladder under the fortress walls. The Egyptians used large crowbars with copper tips to destroy the walls.
Most of the pharaohs adhered to defensive tactics and carried out only preventive campaigns on enemy territory. There were two such enemies - the Nubians in the south and the "Asians", as the Egyptians themselves called them, beyond the Sinai Peninsula. The expansion of the pharaohs spread in the same directions.
Raids of Pharaoh Pepi II
The first Egyptian campaigns, about which there is some sensible information, belong to the Old Kingdom and were made during the reign of Pharaoh Pepi II. This ruler is also interesting because, having ascended the throne at the age of 6, he ruled for 94 years! The first campaign in his reign was made to the Sinai. Usually the Egyptians exchanged their grain with local tribes for copper, rich deposits of which were located on the peninsula. Now the Egyptians tried to extract the valuable metal through armed aggression. I don’t know the exact motives for such a decision, perhaps there was a lean year on the Nile, or simply tired of paying some “Asians”. After that, the Egyptians made numerous punitive and predatory expeditions - raids - to Sinai against local Semitic tribes who attacked cities in the Nile Delta and robbed trade caravans.
The history of these campaigns is inextricably linked with the name of the dignitary Uni, whose military talent served three pharaohs. Subsequently, Uni was the head of Upper Egypt, where he fought with the Nubian tribes. Historically, the Nubians paid tribute to Egypt in gold, rare woods, precious stones, etc. However, this status did not suit the Nubians themselves, so they regularly refused to pay tribute to the pharaoh, and the latter had to organize predatory expeditions up the Nile. Even before Uni, the Nubians were opposed by other commanders: Pepinakht, Mehu, Hufkor. From their campaigns, the Egyptians mostly returned with large booty. However, all these campaigns affected only the borders of Nubia, if the Egyptians went deep into the territory of warlike Africans, then they usually met with a sad fate. It is possible that it was during such an expedition that the commander Mehu died. And yet, during the super-long reign of Pepi II, the Egyptians did not manage to make significant conquests, which they apparently did not aspire to.
Conquest of Egypt by the Hyksos
The next significant page of ancient Egyptian military history belongs to the Middle Kingdom and is very sad - in the period from 1800 to 1700. The Egyptians tried to repel the invasion of their homeland by the Semitic tribe of the Hyksos (“shepherd kings”). Despite the fact that the resistance lasted 100 years, Egypt was still conquered, which was helped a lot by the local nobility, who chronically disliked the pharaohs. Another important advantage of the Hyksos was the use of chariots, previously unknown to the Egyptians. However, the Hyksos ruled in Egypt for only 100 years.
Around 1600. in the city of Thebes, a major uprising began under the leadership of the new Egyptian pharaoh. The Egyptian nobility again betrayed the current government and went over to the side of the Theban pharaoh. This was especially important because, as later in medieval Europe, each aristocrat could put up his own detachment of fully armed soldiers. The expulsion of the Hyksos consisted of numerous small clashes of detachments and sieges of fortresses. It should be noted that by that time the Egyptians had already adopted chariots from the Hyksos and used them with success. Yet the military power of the "shepherd kings" was significant, and their exile lasted about twenty years. There is an Egyptian legend that the pharaoh offered the defeated Hyksos a choice: leave Egypt as free people or remain slaves in it. According to this legend, the Hyksos chose the latter because they were lured by the unique Egyptian culture they had become familiar with during their reign. After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Egypt entered the period of the New Kingdom.
Military reforms of Pharaoh Ahmes
Ahmes was the first pharaoh of the New Kingdom. He was well aware that in order to restore the former power of Egypt, a reorganization of the army was necessary. It was under Ahmes that the first permanent and massive army appeared in Egypt. At the same time, the local nobility, who previously provided most of the soldiers for the army, was greatly curtailed in their rights and controlled by government officials. This reduced the amount of internal unrest and relieved tensions within the country.
The Egyptian army under Ahmes and his descendants stood out as a separate caste of people, which we mainly know about thanks to Herodotus. According to him, the caste was divided into two groups according to age and duration of military service. The outward difference was in the clothes they wore. Herodotus indicates that the number of groups was 160 and 250 thousand people. It is unlikely that the pharaoh could have such a huge army, apparently, Herodotus included the families of soldiers in this number. According to A. Shishov, the army of Ahmes and his descendants could not have numbered more than several tens of thousands of people, including auxiliary troops. The number of archers has been significantly increased. This was facilitated by the fact that the bow became stronger and more long-range than before. In addition, in the manufacture of arrows they began to use tips not from stone, but from copper. The defensive armament of the soldiers improved - a leather helmet and shell were added to the traditional wooden shields, the latter was often reinforced with bronze plates.
The main striking force of the Egyptian army was chariots drawn by two horses. The crew consisted of two people: a driver and a warrior. The latter was usually armed with a bow. Infantry on the battlefield usually followed the chariots and was located in one long line 10 or more deep ranks. Such a construction can be considered the first version of the phalanx. During the battle, the infantrymen had to break into the gaps in the enemy army, formed by chariots and destroy the demoralized enemy.
The art of storming fortresses was actively developed. Large rams began to be used. The soldiers who broke into the enemy's fortifications made from their own shields a continuous, without gaps, canopy. Subsequently, this system will be successfully used by the Roman legionnaires and will be called the tortoise.
During the march, the troops moved in dense columns and were ready to attack the enemy at any moment. Egyptian commanders have always been active reconnaissance. In the parking lots, a fortified camp was equipped with shields attached one to one.
Ahmes also took care of supplying his army with supplies. For this, state warehouses were created, the issuance of food from which was carried out strictly according to certain standards. Soldiers' weapons were usually state property.
It is known about two major campaigns of Ahmes - against Nubia and the Hyksos. During the reign of the latter in Egypt, the Nubians completely got out of the control of the pharaoh, and Ahmes had to reconquer these lands for Egypt. For this, a huge army was assembled and a large fleet was trained, which, along the Nile, made raids deep into Nubia. The duration of this war is unknown, but it can be assumed that the preparation of a large river flotilla alone could take several years. About another campaign of Ahmes - against the Hyksos - even less is known. His goal was to finally discourage the "shepherd kings" from attacking Egypt again. The main actions unfolded in Palestine, where the Hyksos managed to settle well and put up fierce resistance to the Egyptians. According to one of the rock inscriptions, the pharaoh and his troops captured the South Palestinian fortress of Sharukhen only after "besieging Sharukhen for six years."
Expansion to the south and east
In the second half of the XVI century. BC. Egypt began to show an openly expansionary policy towards its neighbors. Under Pharaoh Amenhotep I and his son Thutmose I, the Egyptians finally conquered Northern Nubia, and the power of the nobility in the nomes was noticeably reduced. During this period, the New Kingdom significantly expanded its external borders, the Egyptian army even reached the Euphrates River, but the power of the pharaoh established in the Middle East was fragile and rested only on fortress garrisons, which, as practice will show, were not very strong.
Battle of Megiddo
The Hyksos, greatly weakened after the defeat by Ahmes, did not forget that they once ruled Egypt and were not satisfied with the role of the pharaoh's servants. Under the leadership of the king of Kadesh, a major organized uprising was being prepared to drive the Egyptians beyond the Sinai. The time for the uprising was chosen well - in 1472, Queen Hatshepsut, who ruled on behalf of her nephew Thutmose III, died in Egypt. It could well have been assumed that the pharaoh, who had previously failed to overthrow the power-hungry aunt from her rightful throne, was a weak ruler, and the liberation of Palestine from the Egyptians would be easy. It all really started sadly for the servants of the pharaoh, they were expelled from the fortresses beyond the Sinai, someone was killed, someone was captured and sold into slavery.
However, the young pharaoh, in reality, turned out to be not a youth, zatyukanny aunt, but a strong ruler and a great commander. He resolutely raised an army, supposedly 20,000 strong, and went to restore order in the Middle East.
In 1469, Thutmose's troops approached the Carmel Mountains. The main forces of the rebels were concentrated north of the mountains, but all three passes through the mountains were protected by the defensive outposts of the rebels. Thutmose did not disperse his forces, as his opponent, the king of Kadesh, did, and carried out an attack on just one pass, breaking through the enemy’s defenses without any problems. In this case, it can be said that it was Thutmose himself who broke through, since he personally led this attack. It is clear that such actions of a commander always have a positive effect on his subordinates, and the Egyptian army passed without problems to the valley of Megiddo, where King Kadesh with his troops was located near the city of the same name.
The Battle of Megiddo is notable if only for the fact that it is the first field battle described in detail in world history. However, it is also interesting for its tactical "stuffing", created by the magnificent actions of Thutmose. The pharaoh deployed his troops not in a straight line, but in a concave crescent, divided into two flanks and a center, each of which had clear tasks in this battle. The troops of the king of Kadesh were located right in front of the walls of Megiddo.
The right (southern) wing of Thutmose's army began the battle with false maneuvers. As the pharaoh expected, the Hyksos proved to be extremely ingenuous and concentrated entirely on the maneuvers of the right wing. The left (northern) wing, under the command of Thutmose himself, made a detour without any problems and, cutting off the rebels from the city, hit them in the rear. The dense ranks of the Egyptian chariots crushed the ranks of the Hyksos, and the infantry, armed with swords and spears, began to exterminate the enemy troops. Like any blow to the rear of an enemy army, this maneuver brought Thutmose a stunning success. The rock inscription reports: “They (Asiatics) fled headlong in fear to Megiddo, leaving their horses and their chariots of gold and silver, and the inhabitants dragged them up, dragging them (warriors) by their clothes into the city (that is, onto the fortress walls )" .
After that, the Egyptian army surrounded Megiddo and began a siege. This city was extremely important, because it was on the way from Egypt to the valley of the Orontes River, where the fortress of Kadesh was located - the main stronghold of the rebels. In order to feed themselves, the Egyptians had to plunder all the surroundings and even harvest crops from the fields. Unfortunately for Thutmose, King Kadesh managed to take advantage of the carelessness of the Egyptian sentries and escape from Megiddo. After several weeks of siege, the city finally surrendered.
17 military campaigns of Thutmose III are known. During his reign, he completely captured Palestine and Syria, showing phenomenal perseverance and determination: the Egyptian army tried several times to take the fortress of Kadesh, and it succeeded only for the sixth time! Thutmose III was perhaps the first ruler in the world to pursue a systematic policy of land seizure. At the same time, he never dispersed his forces, inflicting concentrated strikes on strategically important points necessary for the success of the campaign. He consolidated each of his successes by building fortresses, conducting repeated campaigns in areas where his power was not fully established. During this period, Ancient Egypt reached the height of its power. There is no doubt that Thutmose III was one of the greatest strategists of the ancient world. The main idea of his tactics is the mastery of strategically important points, including those for future conquests - an idea worthy of study and application in modern life.
Battle of Kadesh
The battle of Kadesh between the Egyptians and the Hittites can only be called absurd. The course of this battle was more reminiscent of Disney cartoons, in which even a ton of dynamite is not capable of destroying the heroes.
The Hittites are a very interesting people for historians to study. They appear in the Middle East quite unexpectedly around 2000 BC. Presumably they came from the far east, but it is not known whether this was an invasion or a gradual resettlement. It was a diverse people who spoke six languages. Nevertheless, the Hittites had a common state with strong power. The Hittite state - Hatti - was located in Anatolia and possessed significant reserves of iron ore, the secret of processing which was possessed by the Hittites. The use of iron weapons gave the Hittites an undeniable advantage over their enemies. In 1595, the Hittite army defeated Babylon, practically putting an end to the existence of the empire created by Hammurabi the Great. Later, the Hittites successfully fought in Upper Mesopotamia against the Hurrian state of Mitania and in Northern Syria against local trading cities. In the XIV century. The Hittites attacked the Egyptian possessions in Syria and Palestine and conquered them.
Became pharaoh in 1304 BC. Ramesses II dreamed of restoring Egypt to its former limits (and he also probably dreamed of expanding them in the future). In less than a year of his reign, the war with Hatti began. Egyptian sources claim that the war was started by the Hittites themselves, and this is perhaps true, since for the first five years the Egyptians did not undertake any campaigns, but took up a defensive position (although this is probably known from the same sources, but I received through Shishov).
The most significant (or simply the best described ...) battle of this twenty-year war took place in 1298 at Kadesh, which we remember, which Thutmose III took with such tenacity. But by that time it was already a Hittite fortress. Ramesses II, who had good intelligence, learned that the Hittite king Muwatallis (Muwatalla) with his army was advancing towards Kadesh, located on the Orontes River. Ramesses decided to capture the fortress before Muwatallis arrived there, while the Hittite king, having learned about the advance of the Egyptian army, decided not to hide in the fortress, but to defeat the enemy on the march.
Numerically, the forces of the parties were very unequal: Ramesses gathered 20 thousand soldiers, among whom were many Nubian mercenaries; Muvatallis also had about 35 thousand soldiers, of which 6 thousand were horsemen. Both sides had approximately the same number of war chariots - 2500 each. However, the Egyptian chariots were lighter and therefore more maneuverable than the Hittites. In addition, if the Hittite warriors in the chariot relied on an accurate blow with a spear, then the Egyptians preferred to hit the enemy at a distance with a bow. In addition, the Egyptian soldiers were more disciplined and learned. The advantage of the Hittites was the use of iron weapons.
Knowing about the desire of Ramesses to capture Kadesh as soon as possible, the experienced commander Muwatalli decided to outwit the enemy. In order to exhaust the enemy army and stretch his army over a considerable distance, he spread a false rumor that his army was 150 kilometers north of Kadesh, although in reality he was already at the fortress, overtaking Ramesses.
Meanwhile the Egyptians continued their hasty march towards Kadesh. The pharaoh's army was divided into four groups, named after the gods: Amon, Re, Ptah and Sutekh (in order). As I have already noted, Ramesses commanded the vanguard *, that is, the detachment of Amon. On the march, his soldiers captured two travelers who were in fact Muwatallis' spies. It was they who told Ramesses false information about the disposition of the Hittite troops. Here the plan of Muwatalliss worked one hundred percent: the pharaoh showed impermissible frivolity - having decided that the enemy was far away, he went to Kadesh without reconnaissance, not particularly caring that his troops marched in a dense group. His army "spread" over a considerable distance, the detachments moved independently of each other, in addition, the Orontes River was on the way, crossing which was a rather lengthy affair. As a result, by noon, a picture was observed that was ugly for the eyes of any person who even knew anything about military tactics: the Amon detachment set up a camp near Kadesh and had already managed to unharness the horses from the chariots, the Re detachment had just crossed the Orontes, Ptah and Sutekh were just getting ready for crossing. Such dispersal of forces is an invaluable gift for any commander, and Muwatallis was an experienced commander and undoubtedly should have taken advantage of this result of Ramesses' own cunning and carelessness.
The first target of Muwatallis was the detachment of Re - he was swiftly attacked by the Hittite chariots and almost completely exterminated. Only a small part of the soldiers managed to escape, including the two sons of Ramesses.
Meanwhile, the next scouts of Muwatallisa informed Ramesses that the Hittites were at Kadesh, but did not dare to attack the army of the pharaoh. Instead of urgently preparing for battle, Ramesses ordered the Ptah detachment to move faster and gathered a council of war where ... criticized his commanders for carelessness !! They supposedly did not keep track of the advance of the enemy troops! And right during this council, the Hittites burst into the camp of the Amon detachment ...
In theory, this story about the battle of Kadesh could be completed. Everything is too clear and obvious: the Hittites slaughter demoralized and not ready for battle soldiers from the Amon detachment, kill or capture Ramesses and destroy the Ptah and Sutekh detachments for a snack, if you're lucky, then separately, in any case, without your pharaoh, the Egyptian army could represent no more than cattle in a slaughterhouse.
But the case, obviously, was not without the divination of aliens (probably those who helped the Egyptians build the pyramids). Instead of dying in peace, the warriors from the Amon detachment began to fight not for life, but for death, and thanks to discipline and courage, they managed to survive. Moreover, Ramesses II finally stopped hiding his military talent under the mask of stupidity. Pharaoh gathered his troops and counterattacked the Hittites from the Orontes River. However, his actions were unsuccessful, then he ordered to attack the other flank of the Hittite army. This time, the soldiers of Muwatallissa could not stand it and were pushed back to the river. At the same time, the Hittite king lost the threads of commanding the army, and his reserve of 8,000 stood indifferently on the other side of the river.
Meanwhile, the Hittites who broke into the Egyptian camp, according to tradition, began to plunder it. By the same tradition, they were all cut out by the enemy. This was done by the advancing vanguard of the Ptah detachment. Further, a phenomenal three-hour battle of more than two thousand chariots broke out at the walls of Kadesh. Egyptian chariots counterattacked the Hittites six times, thrown to break the army of the pharaoh. Here, at Kadesh, a detachment of Ptah finally appeared, which immediately attacked the Hittites from the rear and drove them from the battlefield.
The battlefield was left to Ramesses, but Muwatalssa was not going to give up and prepared to continue the battle at night. Finally, the reunited army of Egypt also prepared for battle.
The next day, the second series of this exciting thriller began. King Muvatallis placed his army in front of the fortress walls, with the right flank it rested on the Orontes River, the left flank had no natural shelter, but an 8,000-strong reserve was hidden in the fortress, which was supposed to deliver a decisive blow to the Egyptians.
Ramesses formed the troops in three lines. In the first line were chariots in open formation. Behind them stood infantrymen in close formation. The third line was a reserve and consisted of both chariots and foot soldiers. In front of the first battle line, skirmishers stood scattered. The construction of the Egyptians was traditional and simple as a cucumber. The skirmishers were supposed to inflict maximum damage on the enemy before a direct collision and, if possible, upset the ranks of the enemy. By the way, this is reminiscent of artillery preparation before an attack in both World Wars of the 20th century. After the “artillery preparation”, the skirmishers were supposed to go behind the backs of the infantrymen and fire at the enemy from there. Simultaneously, the chariots were supposed to go on the attack and break the enemy’s formation with their blow. The infantrymen of the second line had to rush into the gaps, while it was necessary to maintain their own formation, in which case it was possible to crush a significant number of enemies. When the attack rested on the rear ranks of the enemy and choked, the reserve had to go into action and complete the rout. This is theory, but what about practice?
In practice, after skirmishers exchanged fire, a battle of several thousand chariots began. The Egyptians began to gain the upper hand, and Muwatallis sent selected crews of chariots and infantry into battle. They managed to break through the center of the Egyptian construction, but this success was not developed. At this time, Ramesses ordered an attack on the left flank of the Hittite army. The attack was successful, and the flank was pressed against the river. A reserve of the Hittites came out of the fortress, but the only thing that he managed to do was to provide cover for the withdrawal of the rest of the troops behind the fortress walls.
The field of battle for the second time remained with the Egyptians, but they suffered such significant losses that they could not besiege Kadesh. On the same day, a truce was signed between the two countries, and the Egyptians, having collected trophies, turned back to Egypt. As a result, both sides considered themselves victorious: the Egyptians, because they twice drove the Hittites from the battlefield, and the Hittites considered themselves victorious, because the Egyptians left without even trying to besiege Kadesh. The fighting in this war continued for another 15 years, but there is no information about battles similar to Kadesh in terms of scale. In 1283 BC. finally, an "eternal peace" was signed, the parties promised to help each other in case of aggression by a third party. The treaty signed on this occasion is the oldest international document that has come down to us.
Invasion of Egypt by the "Sea Peoples"
Approximately at the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. Egypt began to be constantly attacked by the “peoples of the sea”. These peoples were mainly Greeks, Etruscans, inhabitants of Sardinia and Sicily. Initially, these were ordinary pirate raids: robbers landed on the coast, robbed settlements and sometimes even cities, and hurried to sail back. However, the invasion of the "peoples of the sea" gradually turned into a real migration of peoples: the pirates sailed with their families and tried to firmly establish themselves in the most fertile Nile Delta. However, the troops of Pharaoh Ramesses III, who had not been able to catch single pirate raiders before, successfully defeated the squadrons of settlers loaded with both families and simple household belongings.
In the end, the settlers, seeing the impossibility of breaking through to the Nile, began to settle in Egyptian territories on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The most powerful people of the migrants were the Philistines, formerly referred to as the "peoples of the sea." They captured a number of fortresses in Palestine and on the coast and stopped engaging in robbery. After this, the Philistines figured more as allies of the pharaoh than his opponents. The Philistines began to actively engage in trade, achieved high skill in the construction of ships, supplied ships to Egypt. The main advantage of the Philistines was the use of iron, the processing of which was unknown to either the Egyptians or the tribes living in Palestine. By the way, the very word Palestine appeared precisely during this period, and in Greek it means "country of the Philistines."
The decline of the civilization of ancient Egypt
The last great pharaoh was Ramesses III. He successfully resisted the invasions of the Libyans from the west, the Philistines from the east and the "peoples of the sea" from the north. However, after his reign, the decline of the New Kingdom began.
In the second half of the 10th century, Egypt experienced a period of some upswing. This was under the founder of the XXII dynasty, Sheshenq I. He was a descendant of the Libyans who moved to Egypt and served the pharaohs for 15 generations. Becoming pharaoh, Sheshonk subjugated all of Egypt and, after the death of King Solomon, conquered Judea. For modern history, Sheshonk is also interesting in that his tomb was found not plundered.
After Sheshenq, Egypt began to decline again, and around 730 B.C. was conquered by the Ethiopian king Pyankha. And in 671, the Assyrian army began to invade Egypt. The rule of the Assyrians will not last long, but the re-established Egyptian state will no longer be such a strong player in the Middle East arena as before.
Conquests of the Egyptian pharaohs
Taking advantage of the weakening of Egypt during the popular movement, in the Nile delta around 1700 BC. e. nomadic Asian tribes, the Hyks, invaded.
The Hyks devastated Egypt and imposed a heavy tribute on the population. Over 100 years the dominion of the Giks lasted. With great difficulty around 1570 BC. e. the Egyptians expelled the Hyks.
Having expelled the foreigners, the Egyptian pharaohs resumed wars with neighboring tribes and states. Nubia, rich in gold, has long attracted them. Up the Nile, to Nubia, a strong army headed. In one of the battles, the Nubians were defeated by the Egyptians; the leader and many thousands of warriors were taken prisoner. Part of Nubia was captured by Egypt and subjected to tribute.
Egyptian slave owners were also attracted to Syria and Palestine, countries on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. There were rich cities inhabited by hardworking artisans and enterprising merchants. sailing ships
goods were brought here from everywhere. Vineyards and fruit trees descended down the hillsides to the sea.
Egyptian army. Archers and spearmen. Wooden Egyptian figurines.
gardens. The high mountains were covered with a slender cedar forest, which was extremely valued in treeless Egypt. The wealth of Syria and Palestine made these countries a bait for the neighboring large slave-owning powers, all the more tasty because Syria and Palestine consisted of many weak and warring states.
Thutmose III
Around 1500 BC. e. Pharaoh Thutmose III launched a war for the conquest of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea
Thutmose III had a strong army. Most of it was made up of infantry. It included peasants recruited for military service. The infantry was armed with bows, spears and battle axes. The bow was made from a single piece of hard wood and reached the average Egyptian war chariot of human height. The arrowheads were metal. To protect against the impact of a tightly stretched bowstring during a shot, a piece of leather was wrapped around the hand. The archers fired on command. Clouds of arrows that bombarded the enemy formation inflicted great damage on the enemy. The fame of well-aimed Egyptian arrows spread throughout the countries of the ancient East.
The army of Thutmose III also had war chariots - high two-wheeled carts drawn by a pair of horses. There were usually two warriors on the chariot. One of them drove the horses, the other shot from the bow. Long curved knives were often attached to the wheels of the chariot, so that when moving they mowed down enemies.
Fortresses were taken by means of a long siege or by assault with the help of long wooden ladders. The ancient Egyptians also had a fleet of ships moving on oars and sails.
Thutmose III made 17 aggressive campaigns in Asia. The Egyptians captured huge booty, drove tens of thousands of slaves who were supposed to work on the estates of the pharaoh, in the possessions of temples and nobles. Egypt received tribute from the conquered lands. To ensure its entry, the Egyptians founded fortresses in Syria and Palestine, leaving troops there.
The looted wealth made it possible to rebuild and decorate the new capital - Thebes in Upper Egypt. Thebes subsequently received the name "hundred gates" (from a hundred gates).
Ramses II
Another major conqueror is Ramesses II. With a well-organized army in 1312 BC. e. Ramses II. made a trip to Syria, most of which was captured by the warlike people of the Hittites. Near the city of Kadesh, a battle took place with the Hittites, which did not give victory to either side. During
the next 14 years, Ramesses II undertakes campaigns in Syria and captures recalcitrant cities one by one. In the end, the Hittites recognize the conquests of Ramses II and conclude a peace treaty with him. Northern Syria went to the Hittites, southern to Egypt. Both states pledged to provide each other with assistance in the event of an attack by a third party or an uprising of conquered peoples.
The weakening of the Egyptian state.
The wars of conquest increased the wealth of the Egyptian slave owners and at the same time contributed to the ruin of the Egyptian peasantry.
When an ordinary warrior returned home after many years of absence, he found his land overgrown with weeds, and his family - beggars. The peasants fought reluctantly. At the end of the second millennium, the pharaohs began to replace the peasants in their army with mercenaries from among the War of the ancient Egyptian state. foreigners. For service in the army, mercenaries received maintenance from the pharaoh. Hired foreign warriors had good weapons and were more experienced than Egyptian warriors. But often they went over to the side of the enemies of Egypt or themselves overthrew the pharaoh.
Priests acquire great power. The pharaohs themselves contributed to their strengthening, distributing land, slaves and other wealth to the temples. Priests are engaged in trade and usury. Sometimes they stop obeying the Farasio.
The weakening of the central government in Egypt was facilitated by failures in wars with neighbors. Under their onslaught, Egypt loses its possessions outside the Nile Valley. With the loss of the conquered regions, the income of the nobility and priests decreased. Requisitions from the peasants increased. The oppression of the slaves intensified. The uprisings rise again. The sources preserved a mention of the appearance at the end of the second millennium BC. e. artisans. They quit their jobs and moved to the capital to tell the pharaoh, "We've been starving for 18 days now."
Persian conquest of Egypt.
The Egyptian state comes to an even greater decline at the beginning of the first millennium BC. uh
Egypt breaks up into separate parts, the rulers of which call themselves pharaohs, but have almost no influence.
In 525 BC. Persians invade Egypt. The leader of the mercenaries in the Egyptian service changed and fled to the Persians. A fierce battle took place in the Nile Delta, in which the Egyptians were defeated. After that, the Persians captured all of Egypt. The Persian king took the place of the pharaoh: Egypt finally lost its independence.
The TROOP was organized in the form of military settlements located in the center of the country and in the most threatened directions; the main forces were in Lower Egypt, which was often attacked: there were fewer settlements in Upper Egypt, since the neighboring Nubian tribes could not be a serious opponent of the Egyptians due to their fragmentation. Moreover, the conquered Nubian tribes were obliged to give Egypt a certain number of soldiers to carry out the internal "police" service. During large campaigns, the pharaohs strengthened their army at the expense of the conquered neighboring tribes. These warriors cannot be considered mercenaries, since there is no evidence that they received any payment for participating in the campaign. One can only assume that they are entitled to some share in the spoils of war.
The documents of the times of the Old Kingdom mention the "house of weapons" - a kind of military department, which was in charge of the manufacture of weapons, the construction of ships, the supply of troops and the construction of defensive structures. There is no data on the number of Egyptian troops of the period of the Old Kingdom. With regard to the fleet, there is only one mention of a detachment of 40 ships sent for cedars.
The warriors of the Old Kingdom were armed with: a mace with a stone tip, a battle ax made of copper, a spear with a stone tip, a combat dagger made of stone or copper. In the earlier period, the boomerang was widely used. The main weapons were a bow and a battle ax. As a defensive weapon, the warriors had a wooden shield covered with fur.
The army consisted of detachments. Sources that have come down to us say that the soldiers were engaged in combat training, which was in charge of a special head of military training. Already in the period of the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians used the construction in ranks. All warriors in the ranks had uniform weapons.
| Egyptian fortress in Semne. Reconstruction |
The fortresses of the period of the Old Kingdom were of various shapes (circle, oval or rectangle). Fortress walls sometimes had round towers in the form of a truncated cone with a platform at the top and a parapet. So, the fortress near Abydos was built in the shape of a rectangle; the length of its sides reached 125 and 68 m, the height of the walls - 7-11 m, the thickness in the upper part - 2 m. The fortress had one main and two additional entrances. The fortresses in Semne and Kumme were already complex defensive structures with ledges, walls and a tower.
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Image on the walls of the tomb of Inti in Deshasha |
During the assault on fortresses, the Egyptians used assault ladders with wooden disk wheels, which facilitated their installation and movement along the fortress wall. A breach in the fortress walls was punched with large crowbars. This is how the technique and methods of storming fortresses were born. The Egyptians were not born sailors, and for a long time their navigation was limited to the Nile and the canals adjacent to it, representing the most convenient means of communication among the mountains and deserts surrounding the country. The absence of forests, with the exception of acacia, a hard and hardly suitable tree for shipbuilding, forced for a long time to build (or, as they called, “knit”) ships from long bundles of papyrus, a reed that grows in abundance in the country. Over time, the Egyptians had to use acacia in shipbuilding.
The ships of the Egyptians were rowing, but they had sails. Each ship had a permanent team with a chief at the head. The detachment of ships was headed by the chief of the fleet. The construction of ships was in charge of the so-called ship builder. "Two large fleets" were created: one in Upper Egypt, the other in Lower Egypt.
Naval ships made raids in the Mediterranean.
Organization of the Egyptian army in the era of the Middle Kingdom
The territory of Egypt during the Middle Kingdom was approximately 35 thousand square meters. km. Its population, according to ancient authors and modern estimates, was approximately 7 million people. Judging by the available data on the recruitment in one of the nomes (one warrior from a hundred men), the Egyptian army could consist of several tens of thousands of soldiers. Several thousand warriors usually marched on a campaign. The pharaoh had with him "people of the retinue" who made up his personal guard, and "companions of the ruler" - a group of noble warriors devoted to him, from which military leaders were appointed: "chief of the army", "chief of recruits", "military commander of Middle Egypt" and others ruling persons.
The armament of the Egyptian warriors of the period of the Middle Kingdom improved somewhat compared to the previous period, as metal processing became more perfect. Spears and arrows now had bronze tips. The percussion weapon remained the same: a battle ax, a spear up to 2 m long, a mace and a dagger.
As a throwing weapon, a spear for throwing, a boomerang, a sling for throwing stones, and a bow were used. A reinforced bow appeared, which increased the range of the arrow and the accuracy of its hit.
Arrows had tips of various shapes and plumage; their length ranged from 55 to 100 cm. Ordinary arrows with a leaf-shaped tip, originally flint, and then copper and bronze, which were common in the ancient East, were less effective weapons than arrows with a faceted tip - bone or bronze, introduced by the Scythians in the second quarter of the 1st millennium. The fur-lined shield, half the height of a man, continued to be the only protective equipment.
During the Middle Kingdom, the organization of the army was improved. Units now had a certain number of 6, 40, 60, 100, 400, 600 soldiers. The detachments numbered 2, 3, 10 thousand soldiers. Units of uniformly armed warriors appeared - spearmen and archers, who had a formation order for movement; moved in a column in four rows along the front and ten lines deep.
For their merits, warriors were promoted, received land, cattle, slaves, or were awarded "gold of praise" (like an order) and decorated military weapons.
From the west and east, access to Egypt was reliably protected by the Libyan and Arabian deserts.
To protect the southern border, three lines of fortresses were built in the area of the first and second thresholds of the Nile. The fortresses became more perfect: they now had battlements that covered the defending warriors; protruding towers for shelling the approaches to the wall; a moat that made it difficult to approach the wall. The fortress gates were protected by towers. For sorties, small exits were arranged. Much attention was paid to supplying the fortress garrison with water, wells or hidden exits to the river were arranged.
Of the surviving remains of the ancient Egyptian fortresses of that period, the most characteristic is the fortress in Mirgiss, built in the shape of a rectangle.
This fortress has an inner wall 10 m high with protruding towers located at a distance of 30 m from one another on the face opposite from the river, and a moat 8 m wide. An outer wall was built 25 m from the inner wall, which covers the fortress from three sides; on the fourth side, a rock breaks steeply to the river. The outer wall is surrounded by a moat 36 m wide. In addition, walls pushed forward were built on rocky ledges, adjoining the corners of the fortress and making it possible to flank the approaches from the river. Other walls protected the main entrance to the fortress. The fortress in Mirgiss was already a complex defensive structure, which was based on the requirement to flank the approaches. This was a step forward in the development of fortification - one of the branches of military art.
The most vulnerable place in the defense of the country was the north - the lower reaches at the confluence of the Nile into the Mediterranean Sea were open to the conquerors. When the power of the pharaohs in the country was strong, it was here that the Egyptians kept the bulk of their fleet and land army. But during the uprisings against the royal power, the defense of the northern borders was sharply weakened, and the Asian nomads could freely penetrate into Egypt.
The pharaohs and their commanders tried to fight quickly in order to return the troops home in a few months. Often the Egyptian army returned home after a three- or four-month campaign, capturing only one or two small fortresses. Major battles were rare - the generals took care of the soldiers, whom they called "the herd of God."
Organization of the Egyptian army in the era of the New Kingdom
The EGYPTIAN army during the period of the New Kingdom was a military caste, which was divided by age or duration of service into two groups, distinguished by the clothes they wore. The first group, according to Herodotus, numbered up to 160 thousand people, the second - up to 250 thousand. It must be assumed that these figures give the number of the entire military caste, including the elderly and children, and possibly women. So, at best, only tens of thousands of warriors could go on a campaign.
Most of the warriors of the New Kingdom were armed with swords, a bow played a significant role in the battle. Defensive weapons improved: in addition to the shield, the warrior also had a helmet and a leather shell with attached bronze plates. War chariots were an important part of the army. The chariot was a wooden platform (1x0.5 m) on two wheels, to which a drawbar was tightly attached. The front and sides of the chariot were sheathed in leather, which protected the legs of the combat crew, which consisted of a charioteer and one fighter, from arrows. Two horses were harnessed to the chariot.
The main force of the Egyptian army was the infantry, which, after the introduction of monotonous weapons, consisted of archers, slingers, spearmen, warriors with swords. The presence of equally armed infantry raised the question of the order of its formation.
If at an earlier time the Egyptians fought in deep, close formations in the form of columns, then later, as a result of the improvement of weapons and the acquisition of combat experience, the depth of the formation decreases, and the front lengthens, this was caused by the need to use a larger number of soldiers and weapons with simultaneous action. The combat formation of the heavy infantry of the Egyptians consisted of one closed line of 10 or more ranks in depth. War chariots were the mobile force of the Egyptian battle order. Closely closed construction of 10 or more lines in depth (phalanx) was introduced for the first time not in Ancient Greece, but in the countries of the Ancient East.
The tactics of the Egyptians were reduced mainly to a frontal attack.
The battle before the advent of war chariots was started by foot soldiers - archers and javelin throwers, then the opponents approached and decided its outcome in hand-to-hand combat. With the advent of chariots, the battle became more complicated - chariots, for example, under Ramesses II, were built in one open line and were located in front, on the flanks and behind the infantry. The attack of the chariots was intended to disrupt the ranks of the enemy with the first blow. The success of the battle depended on a combination of war chariots and infantry.
War chariots, moreover, were a powerful means of pursuing the enemy. During the campaign, the Egyptian army was divided into several detachments, which moved in columns. Reconnaissance must be sent ahead. At stops, the Egyptians set up a fortified camp of shields. When storming cities, they used a formation called a "turtle" (a canopy of shields that covered the soldiers from above), a battering ram, a wine (a low canopy of vines covered with turf - to protect soldiers during siege work) and an assault ladder.
A special body was in charge of supplying the troops. Products were issued from warehouses according to certain standards. There were special workshops for the manufacture and repair of weapons.
During the New Kingdom period, the Egyptians had a strong navy. The ships were equipped with sails and a large number of oars.
According to some reports, the bow of the ship was adapted for ramming an enemy ship.