Trajan, who ruled in Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called "five good emperors." The contemporaries of the emperor would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan "the best ruler" (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words during the accession "to be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan" (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached the largest size in its history.

The equipment of the Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army was harmoniously combined in it with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the Warspot interactive special project.

Helmet

As early as the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic helmet model that had previously existed in Gaul, began to make combat headpieces with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from those applied from above chopping blows, and large cheek-pieces, equipped with chased ornaments. On the front, the dome of the helmet was decorated with chased ornaments in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Lark Legion (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.

Another characteristic feature of this type of helmet was cutouts for the ears, which were closed on top with bronze lining. Bronze decorations and onlays are also characteristic, which look very effective against the background of the light surface of the helmet's polished iron. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series by the end of the 1st century became the predominant model of the battle headgear in the Roman army. According to his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature that appeared, apparently, during the Dacian wars of Trajan, was an iron cross, which began to reinforce the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible dac scythes.

Plate armor

The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliaries infantry and cavalry wear mail or scale armor. But such a division is certainly not true. Contemporary reliefs of the Trajan's Trophy Columns at Adamiklissia depict legionnaires dressed in chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in the frontier forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that the soldiers in these units wore lorica.

The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for the name of the plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st-3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if any, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations near Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of a battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Thus its appearance and distribution date back to the final stage of the reign of Augustus, if not earlier. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators croupellari, others see it as an oriental development, better adapted to hold the arrows of the Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was distributed in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some separate special units. The degree of distribution of finds of individual parts of the armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no question of the uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of the reliefs of Trajan's Column.

In the absence of real finds, many different hypotheses were put forward about the structure of plate armor. Finally, in 1964, during excavations of the border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved pieces of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as to draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted on the inside of a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of each other and formed an extremely flexible metal coating for the hull. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps, they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. With the help of straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. From above, flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands into the side cutouts and fasten it on your chest, as you fasten a vest.

Plate armor was strong, flexible, light and at the same time very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Bracers

On the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of oriental origin and is a vertical row of plates riveted on the inside to a belt in the full length of the arm. In the Roman army, this type of protective equipment was used quite rarely, however, judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian braids, he ordered to protect the hands of his soldiers with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.

Sword

In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and with a rather short edge became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportion of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting the enemy, who did not wear protective armor. Its shape already very vaguely resembled the original gladius, the characteristic feature of which was a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, whose enemies from now on were the barbarians - Germans and Dacians.

Legionnaires carried a sword in a frame scabbard. On the front side, they were decorated with bronze cut-out plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was hung. The lower end of the belt was passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. Such a mount provided a secure fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly draw the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.

Dagger

On the left side on the waist belt, the Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated point. The length of the blade could reach 30-35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a frame sheath. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was hung from the belt with a pair of belts passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upwards, and the weapon was constantly ready for combat use.

Pilum

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionaries carry a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by the archaeological finds, its design has not changed since earlier times.

Some soldiers, who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the shaft of the pilum with spherical lead nozzles, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow inflicted by it. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but among the real archaeological finds have not yet been found.

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Shield

At the end of the 1st century BC, the oval shield, known from the images of the era of the Republic, straightened the upper and lower faces, and by the middle of the century, the side faces also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of an earlier time, continued to be in use.

The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the figures of warriors, were 1 × 0.5 m. These figures are in good agreement with archaeological finds of a later time. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbons, was about 6 mm.

From the outside, the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. The depicted scenes included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, as well as emblems of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were upholstered with bronze clips so that the tree would not chip from the blows of enemy swords. In the hand, the shield was held by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the field of the shield, a semicircular cut was made, into which the brush holding the handle was inserted. Outside, the cutout was closed with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.

Tunic

The soldier's tunic has not changed much since previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric about 1.5 × 1.3 m, sewn on the sides and at the neck. The cutout for the head and neck remained wide enough so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could lower one of her sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered in folds and girdled with a belt. A high-belted tunic that opened the knees was considered a sign of the military.

In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, while the lower one was made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most of the soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions dressed in bright white tunics. To decorate tunics, two strips of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.

Trousers

The Romans, like the Greeks, considered trousers an attribute of barbarism. In the cold season, they wore woolen windings on their legs. Short pants to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who had served in the Roman army en masse since the time of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by the foot soldiers of the auxiliary troops, also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.

The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for a long time are depicted wearing narrow and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for these clothes spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short trousers are already worn by all categories of troops.

Tie

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect upper part tunics from friction and damage caused by armor. Another purpose of the tie is clarified by its late name "sudarion", which comes from the Latin sudor - "sweat".

Penula

In inclement weather or in the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. Penula was one of the most common raincoat models. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer dressing. The shape of the penula resembled a half oval, the straight sides of which closed in front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.

On some sculptural images, the incision is missing. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect against the weather, she was supplied with a deep hood. In a civilian lacerne, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed the soldiers to freely operate with their hands without removing their cloak. On frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.

Kaligi

The soldier's shoes were heavy boots of the Kaliga. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick bovine leather. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps covering the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided good ventilation to the legs.

The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched with each other. For greater strength, it was nailed from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, while the weight of a pair of caligas reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were located in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that wore out more during the campaign.

According to the observations of modern reenactors, nailed shoes were worn well on dirt roads and in the field, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slid over stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for about 500-1000 km of the march, while every 100 km of the way, 10 percent of the nails had to be changed. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.

Belt

The belt was an important part of the men's clothing of the Romans. Boys wore a belt as a sign of coming of age. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved overlays. For a decorative effect, the lining was sometimes covered with silver and provided with enamel inserts.

Roman belts of the late 1st century BC - early 2nd century AD had a kind of apron of 4-8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal ornaments. Apparently, this detail performed a purely decorative function and was worn for the sake of the sound effect it created. A dagger was hung from the belt, sometimes a purse with small money. The Romans usually wore a sword on a shoulder harness.

Leggings

Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on the monuments of the 1st-2nd centuries were often depicted in greaves, the wearing of which was something like a symbol of their rank. Their greaves were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral ornaments. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.

During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from the blows of the Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in the depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamclisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in the sculptures and frescoes of a later period. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffener, devoid of any decor. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.

At the beginning of the Imperial era, around 1 AD, a Roman legion consisted of about 5,000 heavy infantry and a small cavalry unit of 120 cavalry. Typically, Roman legions also had an equal number of archers, cavalry, or light infantry attached as support troops, recruited from among the populations of the Roman provinces. In contrast, legionnaire recruitment took place exclusively among the citizens of Rome. The legions also accompanied the convoys with food and tools for the construction of protected camps, and thus the total number of the legion reached about 11,000 people.

Weapon

The equipment of the legionnaires included not only a variety of weapons and armor, but also tools and everyday utensils. The soldiers mainly had two types of attacking weapons: numerous spears, the so-called pilums, and a gladius, a short sword.

Pilum

The length of the Imperial era pilum was approximately 2.10 meters, 90 cm of which is an iron tip. In battle, pilums were thrown towards the enemy's battle formations from a fairly short distance. Caesar describes the effect of the use of pilums as follows: “... One spear often pierced two overlapping shields, binding them together, (...). Since their hands were now so heavy that they could not fight normally, (…) they got rid of their shields and preferred to fight without protection.

“Gladius, Roman short sword (original find and copy)”

The sword of the legionnaires, the gladius, was a double-edged weapon, approximately 60 cm long and 5 cm wide. It was usually used for striking at close range. Later, during the heyday of the Empire, the legions began to use the spatu, the long sword, primarily as a club.

Roman shield in action

Scutum, a large Roman shield with curved edges for better protection body, used as protective equipment. It was made of thin wood fitted and joined together, reinforced with an iron or bronze frame. In the center of the shield was a cone, and on the opposite side - a handle. The front part was covered with leather and decorated with silver and bronze ornaments in the form of lightnings of Jupiter.

The shields of the cohorts had different colors to make it easier to distinguish them on the battlefield. In addition, the names of the owner and centurion of the cohort were applied to the shields. During forced marches, the shield was carried on a belt over the shoulder.

clothing

The soldiers wore a linen tunic (underwear) and a short-sleeved woolen tunic that went down to the knees in front. The legs of the men were left bare, here protection was sacrificed for greater mobility. The wearing of trousers (lat. bracae) was considered alien and inappropriate for Roman men, although in cold regions legionnaires were allowed to wear long underpants made of wool or leather that ended just below the knee.

Legionnaires' shoes were of high quality and skillful work, mainly heavy sandals with multi-layered soles were used. Sandals were tied with straps in the center of the tibia, and legionnaires could put wool or fur in cold clothes.

Armor

Armor has changed over the years. Different kinds armor could be used at the same time. At the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries, legionnaires mostly wore chain mail. Later, they also protected themselves in battle with "lorica segmentata" - this was an elaborate armor consisting of many overlapping metal plates that were connected to each other by leather straps from the inside so as not to affect mobility. The shoulders were also protected by various kinds of curved plates, and the back and chest were covered with a connected breastplate. The armor could be assembled in one piece and laced up in front, and at the same time it was still easy to disassemble into separate segments for cleaning and repair.

“Legionnaires circa 70 AD.”

From the year 100, scale armor appears, which at first was used only by elite soldiers from the Praetorian Guard. Legionnaires received similar equipment much later. All three types of armor were still in use during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great.

The head was protected by a specially designed helmet, which consisted of a metal dome with attached neck and face protection. On both sides of the helmet there was protection for the cheeks. Legionnaires wound a scarf around the neck so that the iron elements of the helmet do not damage the skin.

Helmet of the Centurion

Around the waist they wore a wide belt, in some cases exquisitely decorated with metal plates. An apron made of leather straps with riveted plates was attached in front. It dangled freely when moving, and was presumably used mainly as a decorative element, although in certain circumstances it could provide a little additional protection to the lower abdomen and genitals. A dagger, the so-called “pugio”, was attached to the side of the belt.

“Works on the construction of fortifications on Trajan’s Column”

Roman Hatchet

Field inventory

In addition to weapons and armor, each legionnaire had an ax on his belt, the sharp blade of which was protected by a leather sheath. The legionnaire's standard equipment also included a saw, a wicker basket for dredging, a piece of rope or a long leather belt, and a sickle. In the campaign, the legionnaire carried these items on a special stick, which was called “pilum murale”. In the later years of the existence of the Empire, part of this inventory was loaded onto wagons in carts and accompanied by troops. The heaviest and bulkiest items of equipment for legionnaires were the so-called "papilio" - leather tents. They were transported on horsebacks along with two millstones for grinding grain.

Centurion gear

As a rule, the centurion had a bright extraordinary appearance, allowing him to stand out from the crowd of ordinary people. He wore a shirt with leather, mail, or scale armor and metal pauldrons, as well as an ornate belt. Below the waist, the centurions wore a double-pleated kilt-like skirt, and metal greaves were attached to their legs. A cloak with elegant folds hung from the left shoulder. The sword also hung on the left.

During their centuries-old history, the Romans created the most advanced weapons in antiquity, distinguished by durability, reliability and high combat qualities. The protective equipment of the legionnaire was quite simple to use, did not hamper the movements of the fighter on the battlefield, although they required a lot of physical effort.

In the field of offensive and defensive weapons, they adopted a lot, and then improved, from the neighboring Italics and, above all, the Etruscans, with whom their early history was associated, the Greeks, or rather the Macedonians, whose military organization during the Hellenistic period reached unprecedented heights, the Spaniards , Gauls, Sarmatians. Since the time of the Republic, the standard protective kit has included a helmet - "galea" or "cassis", a shell - "lorica", a shield - "scutum". The term "lorica" ​​(lorica) is used to describe the armor that covers the chest, back, stomach and sides to the waist.
This armor had three main types:
1.Composite - all-leather or all-metal, or consisting of overlapping leather belts.
2. Their iron curved plates connected by buckles and hinges. The plates could be sewn to the skin. Flexible metal belts were attached to the plates, covering both shoulders and the middle part of the body. The width of the plates is 5-6 cm.
3. Chainmail.

Lorica lintea (Lorica lintea)

A type of soft armor used in the ancient Roman army. It was either a leather likeness of a cuirass protecting the torso, made of 2-3 layers of boiled leather; or a kind of tunic, also sewn from several layers of linen or wool, which was then boiled in salt and vinegar. Digestion added rigidity and strength to the skin or matter, but, all the same, the protective properties of lintea lorica were very small. Lorica lintea was used by lightly armed warriors, such as hastati or velites.

Lorica hamata (Lorica hamata)
This is one of the types of chain mail armor that was used in the ancient Roman Republic and Empire mainly by auxiliary troops: archers, cavalry, spearmen. Roman legionnaires also used the lorica hamata, and later the hamata began to be dressed by some legionnaires under the segmentata. The main theory says that the ancient Roman craftsmen learned to weave chain mail from the Celtic or Iberian tribes. For the most part, puck-shaped riveted rings for lorica hamata were made of bronze or iron, they had a diameter of about 5 - 7 mm, and strips of rings were located horizontally, which gave this armor flexibility, strength and reliability.

For each type of troops, there were their own variants of lorika hamata, specialized for one or another type of troops. Lorika hamata also had shoulder pads that protected the upper body, which were more like Greek linothoraxes (Linothorax). These chain mail pauldrons were connected on the chest with the chain mail cloth with bronze or iron hooks, went from the chest along the shoulders to the middle of the back, where they were also connected with hooks to the hamata. The number of rings in Roman chain mail could reach 40,000. . Hamata could weigh 9-15 kg (with shoulder pads - 16 kg). In its use, chain mail showed good results, and could last for decades, and all due to the fact that due to friction, when wearing lorik hamata, the rust itself was peeled off the rings, which accordingly increased its service life.

Despite the complexity of production, hamata lorica was cheaper than segmentata lorica, and ultimately in the 3rd - 4th centuries. AD, in the ancient Roman army, the legionnaires again completely switched to the use of chain mail, however, the new versions differed from the original ones, which were about hip-length and with a short, and sometimes completely absent sleeve, late types of Roman chain mail were about knee-length, with cuts down the front and back, and also had long sleeves.

Lorica segmentata (lorica segmentata).
Starting from the 1st c. a shell made of iron plates, fastened with copper fittings to the leather base of the lorica segmentata (lorica segmentata), comes into use. However, auxiliary troops (auxilia), as well as some legions in Asia and Africa, retained the hamata lorica as their main armor.

The origin of the lorica segmentata is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the gladiators-croupellari, who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Thus, the popularity of protective equipment of this type in the Rhine legions could be explained. The lamellar shell was several kilograms lighter than chain mail. If the chain mail was pressed into the body upon impact, then the lamellar shell, due to its special elasticity, "absorbed" the force of the blow.

If the hamata lorica was used with might and main by the auxiliary units of the Roman army, then this type of armor was not available to them. Lorica segmentata was worn only by legionnaires and personal bodyguards of emperors - Praetorians.

The Latin name lorica segmentata appeared only in the 16th century (the ancient name of this armor is unknown). The Lorica Segmentata entered service at the beginning of the 1st century and immediately justified the hopes of the Roman generals. Lightweight, durable and much more resistant to chopping blows than the hamata lorica, segmentata lorica became a real symbol of the Roman army. The design of the lorica segmentata is quite interesting, it consisted of metal strips that were sewn onto leather straps. The stripes were more like halves of a hoop, which were fastened together on the back and chest, the upper part of the armor was strengthened with plates to cover the shoulders and upper body. It was convenient to store and transport Lorik segmentata, and as parts (leather belts or metal plates) wore out, they could be easily and quickly replaced with new ones, which, of course, made it possible, instead of buying new armor, to simply repair the worn out one. The shell already connected at the back, with certain skills, could be relatively quickly thrown over oneself, like a shirt, and then tied and fastened in front.

This armor had a different weight, due to the fact that the thickness of the metal varied from 1 mm to 2.5-3 mm, thus the weight of the armor itself varied from 9 to 16 kg and more. During its existence, the segmentata has undergone various modifications more than once. Initially, the connecting parts of the armor were made of brass, for example: fasteners, loops were subsequently replaced with simpler bronze options - rivets, and belts were changed to small hooks, two small ones at the bottom of the armor were replaced with one large strip.

Lorica plumata (Lorica plumata)
This is one of the most rare types of Roman scaly (lamellar) armor, which was used exclusively by officers of the Roman legion. Due to the low prevalence of this armor, information about it is extremely scarce, and they are collected bit by bit. Although the design of this armor is known, it is not known for certain whether the lorica plumata was used by anyone other than officers. This armor was not only a good means of protection, but also a distinctive feature. There is an assumption that ordinary soldiers were forbidden to use plumata lorica, if this was a hallmark of officers, then it is quite logical that the use of plumata by ordinary soldiers introduced some confusion in the ranks of their own troops.
Scale armor was one of the most practical and was in service in various countries Europe until the 14th century. It is not difficult to guess where this type of armor came from, our ancestors simply looked at the protection of animals, in some tribes in ancient times even armor was made from scaly animal skins. With proper processing, the skin did not lose scales, but only added strength, and with the advent of metal weapons, lamellar armor became a rather interesting solution for protection. It was created on the principle of stitching together small metal plates-flakes. However, the lorica plumata is, in a way, a unique piece of armor because the scales in it looked more like bird feathers than fish or reptile scales.

The design of the plume lorica is rather complicated, compared to the designs of most lamellar-type armor of that time, the scales in it were not stitched together and sewn onto chain mail rather than on a fabric or leather base, which gave strength and practicality. In addition to these fighting qualities, she had a spectacular appearance, which had a positive effect on the morale of the soldiers during the battle. Although its protective properties were very high - almost three layers of metal, given the chain mail and plates overlapping each other, it is unlikely that generals or tribunes went on the attack in it. Most likely this strong and beautiful armor was a sign of rank, and not a real battle armor. Due to the complexity of manufacturing and the requirement for the master to have special skills for manufacturing, plumata was one of the most expensive armor in the Roman Empire. As in the case of other types of Roman armor, the original name was lost, and a new one was introduced by modern scientists due to the similarity of the armor to the plumage of a bird.

Lorica squamata (Lorica squamata)
This is another type of ancient Roman lamellar armor, but, unlike plumata lorica, it was used not so much by officers as by mounted warriors, although many centurions wore squamata. There is an assumption that the lorica squamata appeared in the Roman army under the influence of Parthian weapons, which at that time was dominated by a scaly type of armor.

Lorica squamata was made according to the same principle as plumata. Metal plates in the form of fish scales were fastened to the chain mail, often the scales were additionally fastened together with a wire or a strong cord, so there could be from 4 to 12 holes in the scale, and sometimes more. The plates were fastened in horizontal rows and had a rounded shape, so the lorica squamata looked more like fish scales. Remarkably, scales on one armor could be made of different types of metal, most likely this was used simply as a decorative component, without affecting the degree of protection.

The thickness of the plates varied from 0.5 mm to 0.8 mm, while the size of the plate could vary from 6.5x9.5 mm to 5x8 cm, however, on average, the size of the plate was approximately 1.3x2.5 cm. But despite this difference , any lorica squamat gave excellent protection for the torso, since the plates perfectly overlapped each other in a checkerboard pattern, so the impact force was evenly distributed over almost the entire armor, while the armor almost did not restrict movement. The length of the squamata was the same as the hamata, because it was the hamata that was often taken as the basis. The weight of this scaly armor depended on the number of rings in the chain mail base and on the number of scales.

The only weak side of the armor is a piercing blow from the bottom up, the tip fell between the plates and tore the chain mail, with such blows (albeit rare, but still taking place), the lorica squamata protected no better than the hamata lorica. Despite the cost, this type of armor becomes more common around the 3rd century BC. AD

Lorica musculata (Lorica musculata)
This is an anatomically shaped ancient Roman shell, which originated from the ancient Greek thorax. The very first Roman armor looked like two plates (chest and dorsal) held on shoulder straps, a kind of harness.
And only with time, after several contacts of the Roman and Greek civilization, did the lorica of the musculata appear. This armor completely replaced the first armor of the Roman legionnaires of the early Republic, and was used as standard armor until the end of the 2nd beginning of the 1st centuries. BC. Muscular Lorica showed itself all this time as a reliable and practical armor, which did not greatly hinder movement, but a more interesting version appeared, which gave greater freedom in movement, while not much inferior in protective qualities.

Lorica hamata was more expensive to manufacture than muscle carapace, but lasted longer and was cheaper to repair, which is why lorica hamata became standard protection. Muscular lorica remained the same as the armor of the highest officers, in contrast to plumata lorica, which was used by middle-ranking officers. During the Roman Empire, only generals, legates and the emperor himself could wear armor.

The first types of Roman thorax for the soldiers of the republic were made of bronze and consisted of two parts (chest and dorsal), which were fastened together with belts. In length, they differed from the imperial versions only in that they covered the torso of the warriors only to the hips. Imperial officer armor was very different, because it was made not only from bronze (at that time it became one of the rarest options), but also from leather and iron (later versions began to be created from steel).

Also, leather strips began to be fixed to the lower part of the armor in a vertical position, often with sewn metal plates, which made the armor approximately knee-length, and in this case, the protection extended not only to the torso, but also to the upper legs.

Among other things, some armor of the Muscular Loric was made not only consisting of 2 parts, but also monolithic (of course, with the exception of leather strips). In any case, after being withdrawn from service, the muscle lorica became more of a parade armor than a combat one.

Lorica hamis serta (Lorica hamis serta)
A shell made of bone (or metal) plates, not sewn onto a leather or fabric base, but interconnected by metal hooks and rings.

Each plate (at its upper edge) has two holes through which the fastener passes. When the plates are aligned, each fastener strip is covered and protected by the circular ends of the top layer plates.
Information about this armor is very limited.

An essential element of the protective armament of a legionnaire was a helmet.

Apulo-corinthian
A type of helmet that came into the Roman army from the South Italian Greeks and Etruscans, who in turn had it in the 6th-4th centuries. BC e - Apulo-Corinthian (apulo-corinthian) - indicates that this type was originally produced mainly in Apulia. The standard Corinthian helmet was taken as a model and structurally it was turned into a helmet worn exclusively on the head, not allowing the face to be covered. At the same time, the nose cutout and eyes began to carry a purely decorative function, and on at least one sample they were simply scratched on the helmet metal itself.

Structurally, this helmet is a high bronze helmet, beveled to the front, with a straight cut along the lower edge and a slight neck shield. Despite numerous painted reconstructions, this helmet apparently did not have metal cheek pads and was fastened by means of a chin strap and a neck shield strap. The height of such helmets usually varies between 165-250 mm., Its weight ranges from 670 to 1084 grams. , although there are options up to 1535 gr. Its characteristic features also include strongly protruding eyebrows knocked out on the front side above the eye sockets, as well as an expanding occipital part. The helmet was often decorated with notches and engravings on both sides, usually depicting boars, bulls or horses, and (less often) lions, sphinxes and dogs. The thickness of these helmets varied from 0.5 to 2.0 mm.

As an additional decoration, this type of helmet usually carried a vertical detachable (or stationary) rack for attaching a horsehair crest and two stationary side tubes for feathers.

Chalcidian
A helmet of Greek origin, also borrowed from the Italic Greeks, examples of which for Italy are usually dated to the 6th-3rd centuries. BC e. Structurally, it was much more advanced compared to the Apulo-Corinthian type, having a fairly deep conical helmet, which initially had a high longitudinal rib, later (when the helmet became more rounded) replaced by an embossed chased rib, ear cutouts with a slight bend of the metal and quite good protection cervical, which fell significantly below the front edge. The helmet, the material for which was also bronze, had an insignificant rudimentary nosepiece on the front edge, and the helmet itself carried numerous embossed ribs that imitated the superciliary part (usually depicted on reliefs), forming curls on the temporal parts of the helmet, and also carried a rib separating the cervical region from the helmet itself.

The helmet had developed cheek pads attached to the helmet on hinges, the shape of which became a model for late Roman helmet variations. The cheek pads had eye and mouth cutouts and created a satisfactory lateral view.

The helmet also carried a detachable center post for a hair comb and side tubes (or coils) for feathers. The height of such a helmet was usually 190-220 mm., And the weight was 700-1200 grams.

Montefortino
One of the most massive helmets, the history of which covers not only the entire period of the Roman Republic, but almost the entire 1st century of the empire. Usually considered to be borrowed from the Gauls, although there are examples of such helmets from Apulia and even Sicily, dating from the 5th century. BC e. Being the most numerous Roman helmet.

Structurally, it was a bronze (rarely iron) domed or hemispherical (later) helmet, which had a massive pommel - both monolithic and drilled for attaching a comb of feathers or horsehair. Some samples had additionally installed iron tubular mounts (up to 5 pieces) for feathers. One sample from a Gallic burial near Parma has side fasteners for fixing high and flat horns on a helmet.

The helmet itself of this type of helmet was made by casting (with subsequent forging) or forging. The helmet had a straight cut along the lower edge and initially a completely insignificant neck shield, bent from the helmet itself, which had a hole in the center for fixing the hanging ring of the strap, through which the helmet was fixed on the wearer's head. Accordingly, the thickness of such helmets was 2-3.5 mm for cast helmets and 0.7-1.5 mm for forged ones. The weight of such helmets varied between 0.7 - 2.2 kg. Decorations on most of these helmets consisted of 5-6 sawn horizontal lines, repeating the lower edge, a twisted rim and a leaf-shaped ornament of a comb knob on the top of the helmet. Sometimes there were additional decorations in the form of various figures.

The cheek pads, which were hinged to the helmet, were practically flat with a slight curve and wide enough to partially cover the wearer's ears. They had eye and mouth cutouts, which in early models had parts protruding strongly forward. The helmet itself had excellent visibility, but completely insufficient protection of the cervical region, which had to be compensated for by the use of a long horsehair crest falling on the back.

In the process of becoming mass-produced of this type of helmet, it underwent changes towards simplification, having lost almost all of its decoration and, moreover, became lower - almost hemispherical, and the neck shield increased significantly. Some of the latest models, dating back to the 1st half of the 1st century, are already almost indistinguishable from the Coolus helmet, as they have a pointed pommel and brow reinforcement, while the latest (discovered near Cremona and dated to 69) already has a giant neck shield and simplified flat cheek pads.

Coolus
A helmet originating from Gallic models, commonly called Mannheim, and which appeared in the Roman army from the con. 1st century BC e. It was in service with the Roman troops until the 3rd quarter of the 1st century.

The helmet had a hemispherical helmet, almost always made of bronze - there was only one iron version, but while in the Dortmundt Museum, it was destroyed during the Second World War.

Helmets of the coolus type had a straight cut along the lower edge (as in the case of the montefortino), and also did not have ear cutouts and, accordingly, coatings for them. Initially, the helmet was devoid of a crest holder, but later they appeared - as well as side tubes for feathers. Early models also had an insignificant neck shield, which later developed into quite large and flat ones. The cheek plates had complex embossed ribs, and also differed in large size and significant cutouts for places near the eyes and mouth. A significant difference between this type of helmet was the invariable reinforcing visor in front of the front of the helmet, designed to protect against a chopping blow to the front of the head. On the first models, it had a complex profile, later it became lightweight and had an L-shaped profile. The thickness of the helmet varied from 0.9 to 1.5 mm (sometimes up to 2 mm), the approximate weight was up to 1.5 kg.

Imperial-Italic
One of the large groups of helmets, along with the Imperial-Gallic, formed the basis for completing the helmets of the imperial army of the 1st-3rd centuries. It is considered to be based on the previous models of Italian gunsmiths, and at first, on this basis, it was claimed that bronze models predominated in this group, although in fact their ratio is about half.

The helmet helmet is mostly shallow, for the first time its occipital part began to fall below the front lower edge and there it began to be reinforced with broken ribs - usually in the amount of 3 to 5. The helmet itself had a good hemispherical shape, which subsequently began to better fit the shape of the head, ear cutouts appeared on it - the covers of which on the first samples were bent from the metal of the helmet itself, later became overhead. The neck shield was well developed almost from the very beginning and, as it became natural, in later models it reached a significant size. The shield itself also had knocked-out ribs and had a slight downward bend, remaining almost flat. The reinforcing frontal visor at first looked like a solid bar, later it became profiled in the form of the letter G. The cheek pads were usually quite narrow, with ribs and crescents embossed on them as standard, as well as folds from the side of the neck and throat. There were cheek plates and they were completely smooth.

In the next models of this type of helmets, they begin to use reinforcing crossed overhead rims that cross at the top and protect the helmet from chopping blows; the helmets themselves are sometimes equipped with a fairly large number of applied bronze ornaments, and a small handle appears on the neck shield for wearing it. As a rack for the crest, both a holder identical to the Coolus type and a new sample were used - a rotary type, where the comb fork itself was inserted into the slot of the patch plate on the top of the helmet and fixed by turning. Small hooks riveted on the front and back of the helmet served as an additional means of fixing the crest box. Later models of the helmet had a corrugated bronze strip on the brow as a decoration, and the edges of the neckguard and cheek guards themselves often had a bronze edging to hide the poorly finished edges of the metal.

The thickness of this type of helmet varied from 0.8 to 1.5 mm, weight - up to 1.5 kg.

In general, this is a fairly high-quality helmet, which provided excellent protection for the head of the wearer, on which all design features to which there was next to nothing to add.

Scutum
The shield of the Roman legionnaire was the foundation of all the military art of Rome. This is a convex growth shield, about 120 cm high and up to 75 cm wide. We are most familiar with rectangular scutums, common during the Empire, but the armies of Republican Rome were more often armed with oval ones.

The shield was made of glued wooden planks (practically plywood) and sheathed with leather on the outside. The edges of the shield were edged with bronze or iron; in the center there was a rounded bronze umbon. The Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center. Like the Argive shields, the scutums were very heavy - rectangular ones weighed about six kilograms, and oval ones were even heavier ...

In battle, the legionnaire held a shield in front of his chest, practically pressed to the body, while the chest, stomach and hips of the warrior were completely covered. Because of this, the Romans wore a gladius not on their left, but on their right side - it would be very difficult to take out a sword, even a short one, from under such a shield. Attacking, the legionnaire pushed the enemy - and this was not a blow with his hand, but with his whole body, primarily with his shoulder pressed against the shield (this is how doors are planted) - and it was not easy to stand on his feet. In hand-to-hand combat, the legionnaires often crouched, putting the shield on the ground - with a short sword in their hands, the fighter, covered from the sides by his comrades, turned out to be well protected, and it was very difficult to get him. At the same time, the static nature of the battle line was more than compensated for by the maneuvers of individual formations.

	The basis of the protective weapons of the Roman warrior was the shell. Before the military reform of Gaius Marius (end of the 2nd century BC), legionnaires most often used a breastplate made of round and square bronze plates 15-20 cm in size, attached to a sword belt. Or wore Greek-style bronze plate armor. In subsequent years, chest plates were reserved for the highest rank. They were adorned with animal, mythological and pectoral muscles. The rectangular stripes at the sleeves and waist are called Pteruges. Made of leather, they protected the arms and legs.
	Then the breastplate was supplanted by iron mail (lorica hamata), possibly borrowed from the Celts. The chain mail with short sleeves was comfortable to wear, did not hinder movement. It effectively protected against piercing and slashing blows, significantly weakening the impact force of darts and spears. The chain mail weighed 8-10 kg. At the beginning of the Empire, double-plated chain mail appeared on the shoulders, especially popular with cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shortened chain mail are used in auxiliary infantry units. Mail proved to be the type of armor, according to archaeological sources, the most widespread in the Roman army until the end of the Empire.
	Starting from the 1st c. a shell made of iron plates, fastened with copper fittings to a leather base (lorica segmentata), comes into use. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the gladiators-croupellari, who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Thus, the popularity of protective equipment of this type in the Rhine legions could be explained. The lamellar shell was several kilograms lighter than chain mail. If the chain mail was pressed into the body upon impact, then the lamellar shell, due to its special elasticity, "absorbed" the force of the blow.

Under the Severa, scaly armor (lorica squamata) spread among the Roman legionnaires, apparently under the influence of the Parthians. In shape and size, they resembled chain mail, although they were heavier. The weight of the scaly shell was determined by whether the iron scales were attached to linen, leather or chain mail. This type of armor was difficult to put on. In addition, he fettered movement, but reliably protected from enemy blows. At first expensive and therefore available only to officers, scaly armor was quickly mastered by Roman military artisans and became the most common type of defensive weapon in the 3rd century BC.
The Romans had a specific fashion to cover iron armor with tin, which gave military equipment an elegant look. Apparently, also more for reasons of fashion, the Roman legionnaires wore peculiar aprons made of thick leather belts, which, under the principate, became an element of the legionnaire's ceremonial vestments.
The main shield of the legionnaires of the Principate era was the scutum, a large oval shield with a characteristic deflection along its long axis, familiar to the Romans since the 7th century BC. BC. True, under Augustus, its shape changed somewhat: the shields acquired a rectangular shape (oval ones were preserved only among the Praetorians), became lighter (no more than 10 kg), shorter (about 1.2 m high, about 0.8 m wide). The shield was glued together from three layers of aspen or poplar planks, each of which had a thickness of about 2 mm. To give the shield strength, the inner layer of the planks was located perpendicular to the outer. The convex shape of the shield was designed to facilitate the reflection of enemy attacks. In the center of the shield, on its outer side, there was a conical pommel made of bronze or iron. It protected the hand of a soldier holding a shield. It is known that in peaceful conditions, soldiers often kept money and other valuables in the inner part of the pommel. The wooden surface of the shield from the outside was covered with a cloth, and then with a layer of thick leather, and rawhide. The skin was sewn along the edges of the shield right through.
The edges of the shield were upholstered with bronze piping. In addition, iron strips or just nails were often stuffed on the outer side of the shield for strength. It should be noted the high reliability of legionary shields, which could only be pierced by a javelin at close range or an arrow fired from a catapult. The best advertisement for the scutum is the words of Caesar that after one of the battles, traces of 120 enemy arrows were found in the shield of a centurion. In addition to the thickness of the shield, which reached 7 cm, the warrior was also protected by his stance, in accordance with which the shield had to be kept at some distance from the body. It is known that the Romans skillfully used the shield not only as a means of defense, but also when attacking, striking the enemy with the sharp pommel of the shield.
During the Empire, it became fashionable to decorate shields with various emblems: lightning bolts, crosses, stars, wings, etc. The inscriptions mentioned by Vegetius Renat on the inside of legionary shields served similar purposes. In peacetime and on the march, the shield was covered with a cover to protect it from drying and getting wet. Shield covers were often sewn from goatskins, decorated with appliqués with legion numbers and their symbols. On the march, the legionnaires carried heavy and large shields on their backs, using a fastening of two belts, one of which covered the chest and right forearm, and the second, like a backpack strap, left shoulder. Soldiers carrying legionary eagles, banners and trumpeters, by virtue of their functions, were protected by small round parma shields. The rectangular scutum was in service with legionnaires until the beginning of the 3rd century, when there was a return to an oval, but already flat shield. Scutums were armed not only with legionnaires, but also with praetorians. Some auxiliary cohorts also used them, and this circumstance was recorded in their name.

An essential element of the protective armament of a legionnaire was a helmet.
Traditionally, the Romans used three types of helmets. The Montefortino-type helmet had a tin cone with a hole for feathers at the top. The Attic-type helmet, like the previous one, was provided with shields to protect the cheeks, but instead of the cone in the upper part it was equipped with peculiar tube horns into which feathers were inserted. "Etruscan-Corinthian type covered the face completely, leaving only a narrow slit for the eyes. Interestingly, the Romans, unlike the Greeks, did not lower the helmet on their faces, but wore it on the top of their head like a hat. With the advent of the Empire, the legionnaires who served on the Rhine were the first to abandon traditional helmets and adopt Gallic-type helmets. The latter, made of bronze or iron, were more durable and better protected the cheeks, chin and back of the head.
Particularly noteworthy are the plumes of Roman helmets, which indicated the status of legionnaires and played a psychological role. Polybius also drew attention to the fact that various versions of plumes on helmets served to identify different legions. There were several ways to attach plumes to a helmet. The most common was to fasten a plume (traditionally feathers, at the end of the Republic of ponytails, with the establishment of the principate of a partial return to conservative norms) to the top of the helmet. Many helmets have traces of feather mounts on the sides of the helmet. According to M. Bishop, the feathers on the sides of the helmet, like tufts on the head of larks that lived in northern Gaul, served hallmarks the famous V Zhavoronkov (Alauda) legion. Judging by the images on the soldiers' tombstones, the side decorations often coexisted with the plume on the top of the helmet. It is a well-known habit of Roman centurions to wear a plume across their helmets in order to stand out during battle. Probably since the time of the Republic, a tradition has arisen for legionary standard-bearers to wear bear and wolf skins over their helmets, and mask helmets in parades.

	Coolus C Tiberian period. This type of helmet was very well made. A horizontal ridge along the brow to protect against a saber strike. It's called Coolus Marne
	Coolus E Unlike the Coolus C, this helmet came with side stays and a top peak. As more improved helmet forms were developed the Coolus continued to be used by the auxiliaries.
	Imperial Gallic The embossed eyebrow pattern on the outside of the shull cap displays the Gaulish influence that influenced the name of this family of casques.
	Imperial Italic The term "Italics" refers to a whole family of helmets all using a similar style. They were used at the same time as the Gallic type.
	Roman Ridge Helm This helmet appeared at the end of the Gallic style issue. They were produced in huge numbers for infantry and cavalry. This time the Empire is more efficient to reduce the armor of the legions. The helmet and shield should, on most, be the only armor. The style may be of Persian influence.

Judging by the fact that the armor of the officer depicted on the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus (second half of the 1st century BC) is similar to the one that appears on the column of Trajan (beginning of the 2nd century AD), the “fashion” on armor of the late Hellenistic type was preserved in the Roman army during the first two centuries of our era. It can be assumed that the officers wore a short “muscular” cuirass, imitating the relief of the male “ideal” muscles (sometimes such armor is called “anatomical”), greaves (osgeae) and a helmet also of the late Hellenistic type.

The officer's armament consisted of a sword, a spear and a round shield. Tribunus laticlavius ​​wore a wide white scarf over his cuirass, tied under the chest, showing that the tribune was considered a candidate for senators. The other five tribunes of the legion wore a narrower purple scarf.

High commanders wore a sword on a belt belt. Since they did not have to use a shield, they could also carry a sword on the left. But there is no exact data on this, since the emperors and high dignitaries in the images are shown without swords. Of course, they had swords, but they played a symbolic role, like the swords of European military leaders of the 17th-19th centuries.

The centurions were distinguished by their silver-plated scaly carapace and the fact that they often wore greaves that had gone out of common use. The crest on the helmet of the centurions was attached transversely. The insignia of the centurions and at the same time the instrument of punishment was a vine - a cane (vitis). One of the ancient authors mentions that for the addiction to the use of this attribute, one of the centurions of the German legions was nicknamed "Give another", since the vine often could not withstand contact with the backs of his wards. The centurions wore a sword on the left, a dagger on the right.

Legionnaires

Before the reform of Marius, the legionnaires were divided into categories, differing in age and weapons. The first two lines of the legion's order of battle consisted of principes and hastati, young warriors armed with pilums, the third line of triarii, veterans armed with simple spears. After the reform, all legionnaires were armed in the same way.

At the beginning of the 1st century in different parts empire, the first state workshops arose, engaged in the production of weapons and armor for the army. Strict uniformity in their products, of course, did not exist. By the beginning of the 1st century on the territory of the Roman state, several types of weapons and armor were produced, which had become traditional by this time.

The defensive equipment (arma) of a legionnaire consisted of a helmet, shell and shield. At the beginning of the new era, Gallic workshops began to produce two new types of helmets with a tangible local influence of Gallic helmet-making traditions. The first type (coolus) included round bronze helmets with a small rear visor, the second - iron helmets with a large rear visor ("Port" - after the name of the place in Switzerland where one of them was found), subsequently modified into the classic "imperial-Gallic " type. Old bronze type helmets

"Montefortino" of the time of Julius Caesar at the beginning of the new millennium was still quite widely used, along with new samples. As for helmets of the "coolus" type, they ceased to be used in the middle of the 1st century BC.

Modification of the Roman helmet in the first half of the 1st century. characterized by a gradual increase in the rear visor. In the same period, a horizontal stiffening rib appeared, attached to the suprafrontal part of the helmet (like a modern visor), protecting the face from a downward blow of the sword. By the second quarter of the 1st c. inflatable semicircular protrusions appear on the helmets. All these details remained a characteristic feature of Roman infantry helmets in the 2nd century BC.

To attach the crest to the helmets, two holes were provided, in which special holders were fixed. Crests, most likely, were worn only for parades, and were rarely used in battles. The helmet itself was put on only before the battle, while on the march it was hung on leather straps on the warrior's chest.

The shell (lorica) takes its name from the leather straps (lorum) that it once consisted of. Roman soldiers used several types of this shell.

Lorica squamata (scaly shell) was a canvas or leather shirt covered with rows of metal scales.

Until the middle of the 1st century, judging by the images on tombstones, the legionnaires continued to wear lorica hamata (or hamis serta) - chain mail, weighing about 12-15 kg. AT eastern provinces empire, their use was perhaps longer than in the western ones, where shells were made in Gallic workshops, in 30-40 years. 1st century who switched to the production of a completely new type of lamellar shell lorica segmentate, which consisted of metal strips fastened from the inside with leather straps. Modified, with simplified details, the lorica segmentata was used by Roman soldiers until the 3rd century BC. and later. It is worth noting that the tendency to simplify details, not only of the shell, but also of other elements of military equipment, did not stop during the 2nd and 3rd centuries.

From time immemorial, the shield of a legionnaire was an oval curved scutum (scutum). Its origin is not entirely known, some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st c. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently, in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.

The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, upholstered with copper or iron along the edges, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex overlay - umbo. In the deepening of this lining on the inside of the shield, the warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted a personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there were records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, the number of the legion, perhaps centuria, etc. The weight of the shield was at least 5.5 kg.

A group of Roman commanders and warriors (a fragment of a bas-relief of Trajan's column)

The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Among the images there could be signs of the zodiac. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image is lightning and spindles.

Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.

During the campaign and in the camp, in order to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, leather covers were used, which were removed before the battle. Flavius ​​Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future emperor Titus arranged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to the soldiers: “According to the custom adopted in such cases, the army set out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers and fully armed. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright brilliance of gold and silver. The ceremony lasted for four whole days and made a rather strong impression on the besieged.

It must be said that the shield was used not only as a cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. During the training of soldiers, direct blows were practiced with the central convex lining of the shield, designed to unbalance the enemy, as well as blows with the edge of the shield.

The offensive weapons of the infantry included the sword, pilums, and throwing spears.

The Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) is descended from a slightly longer Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis) than the Roman sword. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received this excellent weapon.

The gladius sword, whose name in our time has passed to the gladiolus flower similar to it, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade has decreased to 44–55 cm.

At the beginning of the 1st century Legionnaires wore a baldric (balteus) over their left shoulder, on which the scabbard (vagina) of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could draw it without changing the position of the shield, which always had to cover it as completely as possible.

In addition to the sword, the legionnaire had a combat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt (cingulum) on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's column, by the end of the 1st century. the dagger was most likely not used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.

Around the 4th century BC e. Throwing weapons of the legionnaires were pilums (pilum) - a kind of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and was intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s. 1st century n. e. only heavy pilums were used.

The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was large enough: it could break through the enemy's shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires was based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy's shields. The heavy tip got stuck, bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), the shaft pulled the enemy's shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with the pilums pierced into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.

Auxiliary infantry

During the period of the empire, the weapons and armor of the auxiliary infantry became monotonous, and judging by the bas-relief on Trajan's column, already at the beginning of the 2nd century. they are not much different from legionnaires.

Infantrymen wore chain mail or linen-based scale armor and a helmet reminiscent of a legionnaire's helmet, but more simplified. Chain mail and scaly shells eventually changed to lamellar armor - loriks.

The main external difference between the "oxilaria" and the legionnaires was a flat oval or hexagonal shield, similar to that used by the Germanic tribes, although some cohorts had shields of legionnaires (scutums). The "oxilaria" were armed with two spears (lancea) and a sword (gladius). They could also use a heavy spear (gaesum).

Traditional throwing weapons: a sling, a bow, a dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.

The slingers (funditores), usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had prash (funda) - a double-folded belt - as a weapon. Stones (lapides missiles) or acorn-shaped lead bullets (glandes) were used for throwing. On Trajan's column, these warriors are shown without armor at all and even without any shoes.

Archers (sagittarii) were usually recruited in the eastern provinces. They wore chain mail that was longer than those worn by cavalrymen or infantrymen, and were armed with a complex (composite) bow (arcus) with 12-24 arrows (sagitta).

Cavalry

The Roman cavalryman was protected by chain mail or scaly armor, and wore an iron or bronze helmet. The helmet resembled a legionnaire's helmet in almost every detail. Shoulder pads of cavalry chain mail in the 1st century. very reminiscent of Celtic shoulder pads. The chain mail had cuts on the hips so as not to hamper the movements of the rider when he mounted the horse. Another, lighter type of chain mail, depicted on Trajan's Column, has scalloped edges on the sleeves and hem. Defensive equipment was complemented by a flat oval or hexagonal shield. On the campaign, the shield was either attached to the saddle, or thrown over the back. Of course, there were variations in equipment, sometimes very significant, especially helmets and their decorations.

The cavalrymen were armed with a sword (spatha) longer than in the infantry, similar to the Celtic swords (glaives celtiques), as well as a long (tragula, hasta) or light throwing (lancea) spear. The long blade of the sword was necessary for striking from a horse. Before the advent of cataphracts, Roman cavalrymen did not use spears as a striking weapon. This is quite understandable, since without stirrups, and the Ancient World did not know them, a blow with a spear could simply throw the rider himself out of the saddle. On the other hand, they wore spurs (calcaria) attached to the "caligs" (shoes) with leather straps.

Flavius ​​Josephus, describing the eastern hired cavalrymen of Vespasian, also mentions quivers with 3-4 darts attached to the saddle.

The cavalry armor underwent an evolution opposite to the one that the armor of the infantryman experienced. If the equipment of the legionnaire continued to be simplified and lightened, then the cavalry intensified and became heavier until the cavalrymen turned into clibanarii (clibanarii), heavily armed mounted warriors.

At the beginning of the empire, horse armor was not used, but the harness was decorated with bronze pendants and discs (phalerae), also of Celtic origin.

The infantrymen of the mixed cohorts had the same equipment as the soldiers of the infantry cohorts, however, all its details were simplified to the limit, which indicated a lower position of these infantry in the military hierarchy.

Clothing and footwear

Legionary clothing consisted of a woolen shirt (tunica) with or without short sleeves, over which armor was worn. A scarf was tied around the neck so that the shell plates would not rub it. The soldiers of the auxiliary troops also had the same scarf, even if they wore chain mail as a shell. The color of the tunic is most often depicted in books and historical films as red (the color of Mars), but due to the high cost of this dye, only Praetorian cohorts could afford this color of clothing.

hallmark musicians and standard-bearers was that they usually wore an animal skin draped over their shoulders over helmets. By tradition, lion skins were used in the eastern legions and praetorian cohorts, and bear skins in the German ones.

Roman soldiers wore a cloak (sagum) that was removed before battle. In later times, paenula, a long cloak with a hood, was worn to protect against cold and rain. The military cloak of the commander (paludamentum), made of the best material, was purple in color, with gold embroidery.

Footwear for ordinary soldiers and centurions was (since republican times) low boots (caligae) laced with straps, leaving the fingers free.

Trousers (bgassae) were borrowed from the Gauls. They were worn in the northern regions. In general, bandages (fasciae) were wrapped around the shins to protect them from the cold.

1. Bulgarian slinger.

2. "Barbarian" in the Roman service.

3. Legionnaire in lorica hamata chainmail armor (1st half of the 1st century) and a bronze helmet of the “coolus” type.

1. Legionnaire in lamellar armor lorica segmentata (about 100).

2. Legionnaire on the march. In the left hand is a pole for carrying luggage, in the right hand are throwing spears - pilums. The shield is protected by a leather case.

3. Legionnaire (about 200).

All three legionnaires wear various modifications of iron helmets of the "imperial-Gallic" type, the characteristic details of which were wide cheek plates and a rear visor.

1. Sarmatian mercenary of the auxiliary cavalry (II century). Judging by the image on Trajan's column, the horses of noble warriors could be protected by scaly armor.

2. Rider of the legionary cavalry (2nd half of the 1st century).

3. The sign-bearer (signifer) of the auxiliary cavalry ala (2nd half of the 1st century).

1. Middle Eastern foot archer (depicted on Trajan's Column).

2. An infantryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).

3. Cavalryman of a mixed cohort (about 100).

Warriors of mixed cohorts wore "cavalry" helmets with characteristic stiffening ribs crossing at the top. The helmets of the auxiliary cohorts and al were made of bronze, but could be iron, and did not have decorations, unlike the helmets of the legionary cavalry.

1. Signifer with the sign of the maniple.

2. Eagle bearer of the legion.

3. Praetorian with a standard (vexillum) in ceremonial attire.

1. Soldier of auxiliary foot cohorts (2nd half of the 1st century - 2nd century),

2. Soldier of the Spanish auxiliary cohort - cohors Hispanorum scutata (about 100).

3. Helvetian auxiliary infantryman in winter clothes, armed with a heavy throwing spear (gaesum). Beginning of the 3rd century

1. "Optio" Praetorian cohort in combat ceremonial outfit. The crest on the helmet was fixed with special holders, which could easily be detached when the crest was removed. In the left hand is a ceremonial staff.

2. Warlord in rank tribunus laticlavius. As a mark of distinction - a white scarf with gold tassels.

3. Centurion(2nd half i c.).

1. Standard bearer (vexilary) of the Praetorian cavalry.

2. A soldier of the Praetorian cohort in ceremonial dress.

3. Musician (cornicin) of the Praetorian cohort. Unlike the soldiers who wore plate armor (lorica segmentata), the musicians wore chain mail.

Notes:

The name clibanarii comes from the word clibanus - a small iron stove.