Western Europe in the IX-XI centuries. The formation of the Old Russian state in the 9th century The formation of the Old Russian state in the 9th century
1. The weakness of royal power in France.
The power of the last kings of the Carolingian dynasty in France was significantly weakened. Contemporaries gave the kings humiliating nicknames: Charles the Fat, Charles the Simple, Louis the Zaika, Louis the Lazy. At the end of the 10th century, the great feudal lords of France elected the rich and influential Count of Paris, Hugo Capet, as king (the nickname is given by the name of his favorite headdress - the hood). From then until the end of the 18th century, the royal throne remained in the hands of the Capetian dynasty or its side branches - the Valois, the Bourbons.
The French kingdom then consisted of 14 large feudal estates. Many feudal lords had more extensive lands than the king himself. Dukes and counts considered the king only the first among equals and did not always obey his orders. The king owned a domain (domain) in the northeast of the country with the cities of Paris on the Seine River and Orleans on the Loire River. But the king was not the master in the rest of the lands, where the castles of recalcitrant vassals rose. In the words of a contemporary, the inhabitants of these "hornets' nests" "devoured the country with their robbery."
The king then had no power over the whole country. He did not issue general laws for the country, could not collect taxes from its population. Therefore, the king had neither a permanent strong army, nor paid officials. His military forces consisted of detachments of vassals who received fiefs in his possession, and he ruled with the help of his courtiers.
2. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire. In Germany, the power of the king was at first stronger than in France. A single state was necessary to protect against external enemies.
Attacks by the Hungarians (Magyars) were very frequent. These tribes of nomadic pastoralists moved at the end of the 9th century from the foothills of the Southern Urals to Europe and occupied the plain between the Danube and Tisza rivers. From there, the light cavalry of the Hungarians raided the countries of Western Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. She broke through the Rhine and even reached Paris. But Germany suffered the most: the Hungarians ravaged and captured many of its inhabitants.
In 955, German and Czech troops led by the German king Otto I utterly defeated the Hungarians in a battle in southern Germany. Soon the invasions of the Hungarians stopped, and they began to move to a settled life. Around 1000, the Hungarians adopted Christianity. The kingdom of Hungary was formed.
In 962, taking advantage of the fragmentation of Italy, Otto I marched on Rome, and the pope proclaimed him emperor. In addition to Germany, part of Italy fell under the rule of Otto I. So the Roman Empire was restored once more. Later, this formation began to be called the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.
The emperor wanted to be considered the head of all the rulers of Europe. But real power was limited. Even the German dukes gradually gained independence from him. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king, in order to be crowned with the imperial crown, had to make a campaign for the Alps and conquer Italy again.
Both Germany and Italy at that time were also not united states. Like France, they consisted of many separate independent duchies, counties, baronies, etc., each of which had its main city, its sovereign, its own flag and coat of arms. Feudal fragmentation in these countries existed throughout the Middle Ages.
3. Legend and true story in the history of England. In the Middle Ages, legends about the brave and mighty King of England Arthur and his associates, the Knights of the Round Table, were widely known. Knights performed many feats in the fight against wizards, giants and other monsters. These legends formed the basis of many medieval poems and novels. The idea of a round table came from the legends about King Arthur: during negotiations and meetings, it meant (and still means) the equality and dignity of each participant in the meeting.
Probably, Arthur really existed in the VI century, but he was not a king, but the leader of the Britons - the ancient inhabitants of the island. Arthur led the resistance of the Britons to the invasion of Britain from the continent of the Germans - the Angles and Saxons, which began after the departure of the Roman troops from the island.
For about two centuries the Britons fought for their freedom, but in the end they were either exterminated or driven back to the western regions of the island, partially turned into dependent people. Part of the Britons moved to the north of Gaul and settled on the Brittany peninsula. Over time, the tribes of the Angles and Saxons formed seven kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons on the territory of Britain. They were constantly at odds with each other.
Since the 4th century, missionaries began to arrive in Britain - messengers of the Pope to spread Christianity. Many monasteries were founded on the island. But the transition of the population to Christianity lasted more than one hundred years.
4. Who are the Normans. One day in June 793, the inhabitants of a small monastery on an island off northeast England saw the sails of unfamiliar ships in the sea. Severe warriors with battle axes in their hands attacked the monastery, robbed it and burned it; some monks were killed, others were taken into captivity.
Since that time, for about two and a half centuries, the Normans (“people of the north”) attacked Britain and other European countries - the northern Germans: Norwegians, Swedes, Danes.
They inhabited the Scandinavian and Jutland peninsulas, the islands of the North Sea and the western Baltic. Many mountain ranges, dense forests, rocky and poor soils - all made Scandinavia unsuitable for agriculture. They were engaged only in river valleys. Cattle were bred on the mountain pastures. The inhabitants of the coastal strip fished, hunted whales and walruses.
Many Scandinavians left their homeland. They went on sea voyages to capture prey or fertile land. The Scandinavians themselves called the participants of the campaigns the Vikings. The Vikings acted either as robbers, or as booty traders, or as conquerors or peaceful settlers.
5. "God, deliver us from the fury of the Normans!"
The attacks of the Normans caught the population of Western Europe by surprise. Seeing from afar their long deckless ships, accommodating up to a hundred people each, under a quadrangular woolen red or striped sail, with frightening carved heads of dragons or snakes on their prows, the inhabitants of the coast hurried to take refuge in the forests along with cattle and household belongings. Those who did not have time to hide died under the blows of battle axes or were taken out as captives from their native places. Everything that the attackers could not take with them, they burned. People at that time often prayed like this: "God, deliver us from the fury of the Normans!"
From attacks on the coast, in small detachments, the Normans moved on to large campaigns. Their leaders camped at the mouths of large rivers, gathered forces here, and then, moving up against the current, penetrated into the interior of the country. Several times the Normans besieged Paris, and attacked other cities of France. Kings had to pay off them with silver.
The Normans from the south and east of Scandinavia, known in Russia as the Varangians, made campaigns in Eastern Europe. They reached the upper reaches of the Volga and descended along its course to the Caspian Sea, where they traded with the Arabs and other peoples of the East. Along the Dnieper, the Varangians moved to the Black Sea and reached Constantinople. It was a great journey from the Varangians to the Greeks. The Varangians, especially the Swedes and Norwegians, often settled in Russia (served as warriors) and mixed with the Slavs. From one of their leaders - Rurik, princes led their kind Ancient Russia(Rurikovich).
The Normans skirted the Iberian Peninsula, penetrated the Mediterranean Sea, attacked the cities of southern France and Italy, and the islands.
The Normans were excellent sailors and warriors. But, of course, the successes of the Normans were mainly due to the weakness of the countries of Europe, torn apart by internecine wars and mutual struggles.
6. The struggle of the Anglo-Saxons with the Normans. Natives of Scandinavia, mainly from Jutland, settled en masse in Ireland and East Anglia. The Danes (they were then called Danes) managed to capture a significant part of England along with the city of London. The state of the country became desperate.
The struggle of the Anglo-Saxons against the Danes was led by the king of one of the states, Alfred, who was later called the Great (871-899). He was an educated man and invited learned monks from other countries of Europe to England; at his direction, the first general English collection of laws was compiled.
At first, Alfred suffered defeat from the Danes. He had to hide in the forests with his troops and secretly gather military forces. Along with the militia of the peasants, Alfred created a cavalry army. To defend against the Danes, he built fortresses, built a navy to prevent the landing of enemies on the coast.
Alfred stopped the onslaught of the Danes and threw them back across the River Thames, freeing London. Under the successors of Alfred, the Anglo-Saxons subjugated the local Danes and England united into a single state.
7. The states of the Normans. In the 9th-11th centuries, the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were formed in the Scandinavian countries. But for a long time the kings had to tame the rebellious nobility. After the strengthening of Denmark royalty, large armies were sent to England. The English kings were forced to pay tribute to the Normans for many years to come in gold and silver - the so-called Danish money.
At the beginning of the 10th century, one of the Norman detachments managed to gain a foothold in northern France. The territory occupied by them became known as the Duchy of Normandy.
Now people from Normandy began to sail in the Mediterranean. The leaders of the Normans, having conquered the southern part of Italy and Sicily, united them into a single Sicilian kingdom.
Like many conquerors, the Normans over time, settling in new lands, stopped robberies and robberies, turned into peaceful people, began to engage in trade and enjoy the benefits of European culture. The Norman warriors adopted the Christian faith and mingled with the locals.
From the 11th century, the campaigns of the Normans to other countries ceased: the European states could already repulse them.
Historically, it so happened that in Russia the centuries are written in Roman numerals, although lately one can increasingly see the use of Arabic numerals to designate a century. This happens due to banal illiteracy and ignorance of how to write this or that century in Roman numerals, and people are also increasingly asking questions, what is the 19th century in numbers?
What is the 19th century
To not just answer the question What is the 19th century and to get rid of such questions in the future, you need to understand how Roman numerals are read. In fact, there is nothing complicated here.
So, Roman numerals are denoted as follows:
I-1
II - 2
III - 3
IV-4
V-5
VI–6
VII-7
VIII - 8
IX-9
X-10
It turns out that only 5 Roman numerals have an individual style, the rest are obtained by substituting I. If I is in front of the main digit, this means minus 1, if after, then plus 1.
With this knowledge, you can easily answer the question - what century is the 19th century?
What is the 19th century
And yet, what is the 19th century? Reading these simple numbers, many break them into 3 values - X, I, X and get some very strange century - 10 - 1 - 10, i.e. 10 thousand 110 centuries. Of course, this is not the correct layout. The number XIX consists of 2 components - X and IX and is deciphered very simply - 1 and 9, i.e. it turns out 19.
Thus, the answer to the question, what is the 19th century, will be the 19th century.
What will the rest of the centuries written in Roman numerals look like?
XI-11
XII - 12
XIII-13
XIV-14
XV-15
XVI-16
XVII-17
XVIII - 18
XIX - 19
XX-20
The age in which we now live is denoted as XXI.
What is the 19th century
Many people wonder why in Russia centuries began to be denoted by Roman numerals, because everyone knows that in the same English language centuries are indicated by familiar Arabic numerals, which are known and understood by everyone, so why complicate your life?
In fact, everything is quite simple, the fact is that Roman numerals are used far from exclusively in Russia and not only in the designation of the century. It is believed that Roman numerals are more solemn and significant than the banal Arabic ones, known to everyone. Thus, Roman numerals have been used for centuries to denote particularly significant events or to give some kind of solemnity, to highlight.
It is quite easy to make sure that not only the age is indicated by Roman numerals, it is enough just to look at the book edition of the works in several volumes, where the volumes are probably numbered in Roman numerals. In all countries, monarchs were numbered in Roman numerals: Peter I, Elizabeth II, Louis XIV, etc.
In some countries, even years are denoted by Roman numerals, which is much more difficult than learning which century the 19th century is, because when hundreds and thousands are added, Roman numerals also increase by several digits - L, C, V and M. Years marked with Roman numerals, unlike centuries, look really intimidating, so 1984 is written as MCMLXXXIV.
Also, Roman numerals denote all the Olympic Games. Thus, in 2014, the XXII Winter Olympic Games were held in Sochi.
Thus, it can be said that without knowing what century the 19th century is, a person deprives himself of the opportunity to freely read about various events taking place in the world.
Most likely, in the near future, centuries in Russia will still be indicated by traditional Arabic numerals, and questions like what century the 19th century is will disappear by themselves, because the nineteenth century will be written in a way that is understandable to everyone - the 19th century.
And yet, it is simply necessary for a literate person to know at least the first hundred Roman numerals, because far from only centuries are indicated by them.
Plan
Introduction
1 Events
1.1 Beginning of the century
1.2 Mid-century
1.3 End of the century
2 Persons
3 Discoveries
Bibliography
Introduction
The ninth (IX) century lasted from 801 to 900 years according to the Gregorian calendar. Europe is in the early Middle Ages. Estimated beginning of medieval warming.
1. Events
Founded by Moore, Polotsk, Rostov, Smolensk, Uzhgorod, Zhitomir
Vikings settle the Faroe Islands
Treaty of Verdun signed
Unification of the kingdoms of Asturias and Galicia. Formation of the County of Aragon.
· The disintegration of Caucasian Albania into feudal principalities.
· Construction of the city of Bagan in Burma.
· Ghana is attacked by the Berbers of Lemtun.
1.1. Beginning of the century
Hegemony of Wessex in England.
· Accession of Transylvania to Bulgaria.
· Christianization of Croats.
· Formation of the Tao-Klardzhet kingdom in the Chorokhi river basin and in Kartli.
· Opening the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks".
· The Russian army fought in the Crimea from Sudak to Kerch.
· The Pratiharas invaded the Doab (Jamna-Gangetic interfluve) and captured Kanauj, and then extended their power over the entire territory from Kanauj to Benares.
The emergence of Kashmiri Shaivism.
1.2. mid century
· Capture by the Danes of North-East England.
· Count Anjou Fulk I the Red, founder of the Angevin dynasty.
Formation of the Duchy of Brittany.
· Emergence of new centers of Christian attack on Muslims: Navarre and Aragon.
· The entire Maverannahr was united under the rule of the Samanids.
· Long wars between the Pratiharas and the Bengal princes from the Pala family.
Separation of Java from Srivijaya.
· The third quarter of the century - the Paulician movement.
1.3. End of the century
· Ademar (Emar), the first Duke of Bourbon.
· Struggle in Ireland between Norwegians and Danes who came from East England.
· The liberation of all of León from the Arabs by King Alfonso III of Asturias.
· Until 1306 - the Přemyslid dynasty in the Czech Republic.
· The Tulunid dynasty subjugates Palestine and Syria.
· The Pechenegs move from the Volga valley to the Dnieper valley.
· Alania in the central part of the North Caucasus stood out from the Khazar Khaganate.
· Strengthening of the Khitan tribal alliance in Western Mongolia and part of Manchuria.
· 890 - evidence that the Chigil tribe had a state.
Disintegration of Korea into the states of Silla in the northeast, "Second Paekche" in the southwest and Taebon in the north.
· The Mayan cities in the southern Yucatan ceased to exist.
2. Persons
· Prince Travuniya Falimer, son of Kraina.
Charlemagne - King of the Franks and Lombards.
Photius I - Patriarch of Constantinople.
Nicholas I - Pope of Rome.
3. Discoveries
Discovery of Iceland by Viking Gardar Svavarson
The first windmills
Bibliography:
1. Gumilyov L. N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe. M.: Thought, 1989. pp. 685-755
A (y), suggestion. about the century, for the century; pl. century, ov; m. 1. A period of time in a hundred years; century. The twentieth century. In the last century. A quarter of a century has passed. In the mists of time; from time immemorial (about what originates in the distant past). Many folk... encyclopedic Dictionary
Husband. the lifespan of a person or the shelf life of an item; continuation of earthly existence. A century of everyday life; century oak millennium. | Life, the being of the universe in its current order. The end of the age is near. | Century. Now the nineteenth century according to Rozhd. Chr. |… … Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
Exist., m., use. very often Morphology: (no) what? century, why? century, (see) what? century what? century, about what? about the century and for the century; pl. what? century, (no) what? centuries, why? centuries, (see) what? century, what? for centuries, about what? about centuries 1. A century is a time period ... ... Dictionary of Dmitriev
CENTURY, century (century), about a century, for a century, pl. century (very obsolete), husband. 1. Life (colloquial). "Live and learn." (last) Add a century (lengthen life). He experienced many adventures in his lifetime. I have enough work for my lifetime. "Evil, in girls for a century." ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
See time, long, life for ever, forever and ever, live out a century, ruin a century, forever, forever, forever, forever, forever, forever, never forever, from century to century, outlive your age, wash your age, wash your age, calm down ... ... Synonym dictionary
CENTURY, a, about a century, for a century, pl. oh, oh, husband. 1. A period of one hundred years, conventionally calculated from the birth of Jesus Christ (the Nativity of Christ). Third century BC. 20th c. (period from January 1, 1901 to December 31, 2000). Beginning of the century (tenths ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
Age of the Restless Sun ... Wikipedia
Century to age
Century to shine- CENTURY TO CENTURY. CENTURY GREEN. Obsolete Express. 1. Live long; live life. And so Alena remained for one century to age (Bazhov. Ermakov's swans). Well, brother, said Kustolomov, your apartment, of course, is unenviable, but you don’t have to spend a century here ... ... Phraseological dictionary of the Russian literary language
century- to age the pastime of the eyelids, the action ends, the subject, the end of the century, the action began, the subject, the beginning of the century, to live the end, the pastime of the centuries, the action has passed, the subject, the end, to live out the century, the end, ... ... Verbal compatibility of non-objective names
The Age of Stupid Genre ... Wikipedia
Books
- The Age of Joyce, I. I. Garin. If history is written as the history of the culture of the human spirit, then the 20th century should be named after Joyce - Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, Dostoevsky of our time. Eliot compared his `Ulysses` with ...
- A century of hopes and collapses, Oleg Volkov. 1990 edition. The safety is good. The main work in the collection "The Age of Hopes and Crashes" by one of the elders of Russian literature, Oleg Vasilyevich Volkov, published to his ...
polyudie
The key to understanding early Russian statehood is polyudie.
It is extremely important for us to establish the existence of a polyudye at the level
one union of tribes, that is, at a lower stage of development than the "union
unions "- Rus. For the tribal union of the Vyatichi, we have information about the complete
cycle of the polyudye - the annual detour of the "bright prince" of the entire subject
territories, collecting "clothes" (obviously, furs) and selling the collected valuables down
along the Don to Itil, in return for which the Vyatka nobility received in the 9th century a large
the amount of oriental silver in coins, and oriental decorations that influenced
to the local tribal craft.
Next to the tribal union of the Vyatichi ("Slavs") existed simultaneously with
him the superunion Rus, which united five or six separate tribal unions,
similar to Vyatich. Here, too, there was polyudye (the Rus carried their furs
"from the remotest ends of the Slavs"), but it differed significantly from
Vyatichsky, first of all, by the size of the subject territory, and therefore,
should have been distinguished by a different, higher organization of tribute collection.
In Russia, like the Vyatichi, the second task was to sell the results of polyudya.
Russ, significantly exceeding what we can assume for the Vyatichi.
The Rus sold their goods to Byzantium and to the lands of the Caliphate, reaching Rey,
Baghdad and Balkh (!).
The same phenomena occurring in each of the independent
tribal unions and in the superunion of Russia synchronous to them, for all their similarities
differ in that what happened in the "union of unions" was an order of magnitude higher
what was done within individual unions that had not yet reached the highest degree
integration.
Perhaps this is where the starting point of new
socio-economic relations, a new formation. The union of tribes was supreme
stage of development of the primitive communal system, which prepared separate
tribes to the forthcoming historical life in large associations in which
the ancient patriarchal forms of communication inevitably and rapidly disappeared, being replaced
newer, wider The creation of a union of tribes was already a preparation for
transition to statehood. "Head of Heads", who led a dozen tribes and
called "bright sovereign" or, in the transfer of foreigners, "king", was already
not so much the ruler of primitive tribes, but the head of the born
states. When society rises an order of magnitude higher and creates out of
unions of tribes a new (both quantitatively and qualitatively) association, "union
unions" of tribes, then the question of statehood can only be decided
unequivocally: where the integration of tribes has reached such a high level,
the state is already in place.
When the chronicler listed in detail which of the East Slavic
tribal unions became part of Russia, he described to his readers
the state of Russia at one of the stages of development (in the first half of the 9th century),
when Russia covered only half of the tribal unions. Polyudie is the first
the most naked form of domination and submission, the exercise of the right to
land, establishing the concept of allegiance. If in the union of tribes polyudye is still in
to some extent can be based on old tribal ties, then in a super-alliance
it is already completely abstracted and separated from any patriarchal
memories.
In connection with the falsifications that are allowed in relation to the Russian
history of the Normans, it should be noted that polyudye appears in the sources
before us as a purely Slavic institution with Slavic terminology.
Polyudye is known, for example, in Poland, where it was called "stan", and the taxes levied
requisitions - "guest".
Russian word"polyudye" we meet both in chronicles and in letters.
Polyudie has nothing to do with the Varangians; on the contrary, in the Scandinavian
lands to refer to this phenomenon used Russian, Slavic
word. In the Scandinavian saga of Harald, when such detours are mentioned
the borrowed Slavic word "poluta" ("polutasvarf") is used. Tem
the same Slavic word denotes a circular princely detour and emperor
Konstantin Porphyrogenitus.
Polyudye as a detour of the remotest Slavic lands was known
characteristic of the entire 9th century (perhaps also for the end of the 8th century?) and for
the first half of the 10th century, although it is known as a local survival phenomenon
and in the twelfth century. Detailed description polyudya for the middle of the X century left us
emperor Constantine, and one of the tragic episodes is the murder of a prince in
the time of the collection of polyudya - the chronicle under the year 945 describes in detail.
Analyzing the polyudie of the 940s, we must spread the notion
about him and more early time(up to the turn of the VIII-IX centuries; the difference in
the volume of lands subject to Russia was, but it no longer created a quality
differences. Early 9th century super union of five to six tribal unions and super union
the middle of the X century, out of eight - ten unions, one did not fundamentally differ
from another.
Let's start our consideration of Russian polyudy with a description of Emperor Constantine
(about 948), rearranging some sections according to the thematic principle.
Konstantin Porphyrogenitus.
"About the Russians coming from Russia on monoxyls to Constantinople".
"The winter and harsh way of life of these same Russ is as follows. When it comes
the month of November, their princes immediately go out with all the Rus from Kyiv and
go to polyudye, that is, a circular detour, and it is to the Slavic lands
Vervianov [Drevlyan] Druguvit [Dregovich] Krivitein [Krivichi] North
and other Slavs paying tribute to the Rus. Feeding there for
whole winter, they are in the month of April, when the ice on the Dnieper River melts, again
return to Kyiv. Then they take their one-trees, equip and
go to Byzantium...
"Odnodrevki coming to Constantinople from Outer Russia come from
Nevogardy [Novgorod], in which Svyatoslav, the son of a Russian prince, sat
Igor, as well as from the fortress of Miliniski [Smolensk] from Telyutsa [Lyubech] Chernigozh
[Chernigov] and from Vyshegrad [Vyshgorod near Kyiv]. They all go down the river
Dnieper and gather in the Kyiv fortress, called "Samvatas" (?). Tributaries
them, the Slavs, called Kriviteins [Krivichi] and Lensanins [Polochans],
and other Slavs cut one-wood trees in their mountains in the winter, and, having dressed them,
with the opening of time (swimming), when the ice melts, they are introduced into nearby lakes.
Then, since they (“lakes”) flow into the Dnieper River, from there they themselves
enter the same river, come to Kyiv, pull the boats ashore for
equipment and sell to Russians. The Russians, buying only the very decks, equip
old odnodrevki, take oars, oarlocks and other gear from them and equip
An interesting story about the polyudie of Emperor Constantine, annually
who saw with his own eyes Russian "one-trees" - monoxyls, has long been known
historians, but no attempt has ever been made to recreate the polyudie of the middle of the X
century in all its real scope as an all-Russian annual phenomenon. And without
we will not be able to understand the essence of the state of Russia in the VIII-X centuries.
Let's start with the "one-trees", in which small fragile shuttles were often seen
Slavs, hollowed out from one tree, which explained their Greek
the name is "monoxyls". Small shuttles that could hold only three
man, at that time really existed, as we know from the "Note
Greek toparch", a younger contemporary of Constantine. But here we are talking about
completely different: it is already clear from the above text that the ships were equipped with
oarlocks and oars, while the shuttles were controlled by one stern oar and
never had oarlocks and swing oars: the shuttle was too narrow for them.
The nature of the monoxyls is clarified by describing their passage through
Dnieper rapids: people leave the ships, leaving cargo there, and push
ships through the rapids, "at the same time, some push the prow of the boat with poles, and
others in the middle, others in the stern." Everywhere plural; one boat
pushing a whole crowd of people; in the boat is not only a load, but also "chained in chains
slaves". It is clear that before us are not dugout shuttles, but ships that lifted along
20-40 people (as we know from other sources).
The words
Konstantin that, having done the hardest part of the journey, dragging his
ships through the rapids, the Russians "again supply their one-trees with the missing
accessories: sails, masts and yards that they bring with them.
Masts and yards finally convince that we are not talking about shuttles, but about
ships, boats. They are called odnodrevki because the keel of the ship
was made from one tree (10-15 meters long), and this allowed
to build a boat suitable not only for navigation on the river, but also for distant
sea travel.
The whole process of annual production of several hundred ships has already
speaks of the state's approach to this important matter. The ships were getting ready
in the entire Dnieper basin ("lakes" flowing into the Dnieper) and even in the basin
Ilmen. The vast lands of the Krivichi and Polochans are named, where during the winter
shipbuilders worked.
We are already familiar with this huge expanse of the Dnieper basin,
all the rivers of which converge at Kyiv; back in the 5th-6th centuries, when
spontaneous movement of the northern Slavic tribes to the south, Kyiv became the master
Dnieper shipping. Now, throughout this region, "tributaries" of the Russians are chopping
odnodrevki in "their mountains." True, Konstantin writes that
tributary Slavs sell their freshly made boats in Kyiv. But not
by chance, the emperor connected the ship business with the citizenship of Russia; obviously this
was the duty of the tributary Slavs, who received some kind of
On the application of the state principle in the manufacture of commercial
fleet also says that Constantine indicated the regional collection points for ships
over 900 kilometers: Novgorod (basin of Ilmen, Desna and Seim),
Smolensk (Upper Dnieper basin), Chernihiv (Desna and Seym basins), Lyubech
(Berezina basin, part of the Dnieper and Sozh), Vyshgorod (Pripyat basin and
Grouse). In Kyiv, a special tract was allotted (obviously, Pochaina?),
where all the boats delivered from these rivers were finally equipped. Name
this fortress - "Samvatas" - has not yet been deciphered by scientists.
So, the process of making a fleet took winter time and part of spring
(alloy and equipment) and required the efforts of many thousands of Slavic carpenters and
shipbuilders. It was placed under the control of five regional chiefs, from
of which one was the son of the Grand Duke, and ended in the capital itself. To
the work of men who did wooden base ship, we must add labor
Slavic women weaving sails for rigging the flotilla.
The size of the merchant fleet is unknown to us; military fleets
numbered up to 2 thousand ships. Annual trading expeditions that exported
the results of polyudya were obviously less numerous, but could not be
and too small, since they had to make their way through the lands of the Pechenegs,
who robbed Russian caravans at the Thresholds.
Let us conditionally accept the number of one-trees in 400--500 ships. For one sail
it took about 16 square meters"thickness" (rough but durable
two weavers for the whole winter. Considering that after the thresholds they put spare
sails, we get such an approximate calculation: for the manufacture of all sails
required the work of 2 thousand weaving mills throughout the winter, that is
labor of women 80-100 then villages. Add to this cultivation and
spinning flax and hemp and making about 2,000 meters of "ugish" --
ship ropes.
All these calculations (giving, of course, only approximate results)
nevertheless show that behind the laconic lines of the source we can and must
consider the phenomena mentioned in them in all their real life
incarnation. And it turns out that only one part of that social complex,
which is briefly referred to as polyudium, is a significant
duty. Construction of mills, transportation of tribute to Kyiv, production
boats and sails to them - all this is the primary form of labor rent, the heaviness
which fell on both the prince's servants and the communal peasants.
Consider from the same positions polyudye itself as an annual
state event, we will reveal, as far as possible, its practical
organizational entity. The treatise of Emperor Constantine contains enough
data for this.
Firstly, we know the lands of those tribes (more precisely, tribal unions), according to
who passed polyudye. This is the region of the Drevlyans (between the Dnieper, Goryn and
upper reaches of the Southern Bug); Dregovichi region (from Pripyat to the north to
watershed with the basin of the Neman and Dvina, in the east - from the Dnieper
inclusive); a vast area of the Krivichi in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Dvina and Volga
and, finally, the region of the northerners, covering the Middle Desna, Semye and basins
the upper reaches of the Pel and Vorskla.
If we plot these four regions on a map, we will see that they are
cover an area of 700x1000 kilometers, almost touching each other
different, but leaving in the middle a large "white spot" about 300 kilometers in
across. It falls on the land of the Radimichi. Radimichi not included
Konstantin Porphyrogenitus in the list of tribes that paid tribute to Kyiv.
The emperor was precise: the radimichi were subjugated by the voivode of Vladimir Wolf's Tail
only in 984, after the battle on the Peschana River, 36 years after
writing a treatise.
Secondly, we know that the polyudie lasted 6 months (with November to
April), that is, about 180 days.
Thirdly, we can apply to Constantine's information the speed
displacement polyudya (not forgetting about its conditionality), equal to about 7--8
kilometers per day.
Fourth, we know that the detour was circular and, if followed
the order of the description of the tribes, moved "salting" (according to the sun).
Multiplying the number of days by the average daily speed (7-8
kilometers), we get the approximate length of the entire polyudya path - 1200--1500
kilometers. What could be the specific route of polyudya? Detour by
the perimeter of the four tribal unions must be immediately rejected, since it would go
on the complete impassability of the forest and swampy outskirts and in total
would be about 3 thousand kilometers.
In the chronicle story about Olga's "reforms" there are two groups of exact
geographic confinement: in the north near Novgorod - Meta and Luga, and on
south near Kyiv - the Dnieper and the Desna. Polyudye, departing in autumn from Kyiv and
returning in the spring there, could use precisely these
Kyiv rivers, forming an almost complete ring: first, the way up the
Dnieper to Smolensk, and then - down the Desna to Olga's city of Vyshgorod,
standing at the mouth of the Desna.
Let's check this by counting: the path from Kyiv to Smolensk along the banks of the Dnieper
(or on ice) was about 600 kilometers. Check-in to the Drevlyans
Iskorostenya, where Igor collected tribute, increased the distance by 200-250
kilometers. The path from Smolensk to Kyiv, along the Desna to Yelnya (city
mentioned in the XII century), Bryansk and Chernigov was approximately 700--750
kilometers. The total distance (1500-1600 kilometers) could be covered with
November to April.
It also satisfies us with regard to all four mentioned by Constantine
tribal unions. The first in his list are the Vervians (Drevlyans); more likely
all that the princely polyudie began from the land of the Drevlyans closest to Kyiv,
lying one day's journey from Kyiv to the west. On the way from Kyiv to the capital
Drevlyane land - Iskorosten - lay the town of Malin, not mentioned
chronicle, but, quite likely, was the residence of the Drevlyansk prince
Mala, who wooed Olga. In addition to Iskorosten, polyudye could also visit
Vruchiy (Ovruch), lying 50 kilometers north of Iskorosten.
The Drevlyan tribute, collected in November, when the rivers had not yet become, could
be rafted along the Uzh to the Dnieper to Chernobyl and from there to Kyiv, so as not to
weigh down the upcoming roundabout.
From the Drevlyansk Iskorosten (and Ovruch) polyudye had to move to
northeast direction to Lyubech, which was, as it were, the northern gate
"Inner Russia" by Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Heading north, up
Dnieper, polyudye fell into the land of Drugovites (Dregovichi), who lived on both
coexisted with Radimichi.
In the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the princely bypass entered a vast area
Krivichi, passing along its southern outskirts, and reached the Krivichi capital -
Bryansk was part of the northwestern outskirts of the Seversk land
(Novgorod-Seversky, Sevsk) and through Chernigov, which was already outside the Severshchina,
led the Desna to Kyiv.
This circular route did not cross the land of the listed tribes,
but walked along the inner edge of the possessions of each of the four tribes, everywhere skirting
white spot of Radimichi, not mentioned by Emperor Constantine among
subject to Russia. Move the proposed route somewhere to the side
seems possible, since then one of the tribes will inevitably fall out or
the speed of movement will change greatly compared to 1190, when, as
it was established that the polyudye moved at an average speed of 7-8 kilometers per day.
The average speed of movement of a polyud does not mean, of course, that
riders and riders traveled only 7–8 kilometers a day. day trip to
such wooded areas usually equate to 30 kilometers. In such
case, the entire princely detour of 1,500 kilometers can be divided into 50
daily segments: day trip and overnight stay. The place of lodging for the night was probably called
in the 10th century a camp. There are still 130 days left for longer shutdowns.
Thus, we must imagine polyudie as a movement with
the usual speed of medieval horse riding, with stops on average 2-3
day at each overnight stay. In large cities, stops could be more
long due to the reduction of stay in insignificant camps.
The slowness of the general movement made it possible to drive to the side of
main route; therefore, the polyud's path is represented not by a line, but by a strip
20-30 kilometers wide, along which tribute collectors could drive
(tributaries, virniks, emtsy, youths, etc.).
In the traffic lane of the "large polyudye" described by Konstantin
Porphyrogenitus, according to the sources of the X-XII centuries, we know a number of cities and
towns (according to archaeological data, often dating back to the 10th century), which
could be polyudya camps:
Way from Kyiv
Iskorosten - Vruchiy - Chernobyl - Bryagin - Lyubech - Strezhev - Rogachev -
Kopys - Odrsk - Kleplya - Red - Smolensk
Way from Smolensk
Dogobuzh (?) Luchin (?) - Yelnya - Rognedino - Patsyn - Zarub - Vshchizh -
Debriansk - Trubech - Novgorod-Seversky - Radogoshch - Khorobor - Sosnitsa -
Blestovit - Snovsk - Chernihiv - Moraviysk - Vyshgorod - Kyiv
Five cities (Kyiv, Vyshgorod, Lyubech, Smolensk and Chernihiv) from this
list are named Constantine, the rest at different times for different reasons
are mentioned by the chroniclers and the charter of Rostislav Smolensky.
In one of the cities, Kopys, the memory of the polyud was preserved until the 12th century.
century. Among the large number of points mentioned in the letter of Rostislav
(1136), only in two they collected a tax, called a polyud: "On Kopys
polyudya four hryvnias..."
Kopys is located on the Dnieper, on the path of our polyudya.
Smolensk was the most remote and turning point of the circular princely
detour, middle of the road. Somewhere near Smolensk, polyudye must have
go to the Desna river system. It is possible to check in Dorogobuzh, but Desninsky
the path began, in all likelihood, from Yelnya. Smolensk marked
Constantine as one of the important centers, from where in the spring, after the opening of the rivers,
monoxyl rooks go to Kyiv. It is quite possible that the tribute collected in the first
half of the polyudya, did not bother with herself, but remained in camps until spring,
when it could be easily floated down the Dnieper. The main point
storage of tribute could be Smolensk, named Constantine fortress.
The crowd was undoubtedly crowded. Constantine writes that the princes
leave in November "with all the Russians." Igor went to the village land from all over
his retinue and, having collected tribute, sent most of the retinue with tribute to
Kyiv, while he himself remained in a hostile land with a "small squad". We must think that
this smaller part of the squad seemed to the prince still sufficient in order to
maintain the prestige of the Grand Duke and protect his safety.
Together with the retinue, grooms were supposed to go to the field, riding with a wagon train,
various servants, "breadwinners" - cooks, "countrymen" who repaired saddles and
harness, etc. Some idea of the number of people can give
the words of Ibn-Fadlan (922) about the Kiev prince: "Together with him (the king of the Rus) in
in his castle are 400 men from among the heroes, his associates and
reliable people who are with him ... "Even if we consider that the prince had to
leave in Kyiv some part of the "heroes" for the defense of the capital from
Pechenegs, then in this case the polyudie consisted of several hundred
vigilantes and "reliable people". All this mass was to be taken over by the camp.
By winter time, there should have been "istes" in the camp - warm
rooms for people, stables, barns for storing and sorting tribute, barns and
haylofts for pre-stored grain and fodder. The station should have been
equipped with ovens for baking bread, millstones, a forge for various
weapons business.
Much in the everyday life of the camp had to be prepared in advance, before
invasions of the polyudya itself. There must have been people who performed various
work on the preparation of the camp, on its servants during the polyud and guarding
camp complex (maybe with tribute left until spring) until the next
the arrival of the prince with his "heroes".
The fact that polyudie did not penetrate into the deep regions of the tribes,
but it went only along the very border of the territory of each tribal union, makes
us to think about a way to collect tribute. One must think that the mechanics of collecting tribute
directly from the peasant population was already sufficiently developed
local princes and a certain amount of tribute from outlying areas
was taken in advance to the points through which the polyudie of the Kyiv
We should not imagine polyudie as a rampant patrol of the Kyiv
squads in villages and cities indiscriminately. The tribute was charged
(we know this from the events of 945), and, in all likelihood, polyudie,
produced annually, visited from year to year the same camps, to
to which the local princes brought a stipulated tribute in advance, that is, they "brought
The polyudye route was 200–250 kilometers away from the external borders
tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Northerners. Without
preliminary "carriage" organized by the local tribal nobility, it is difficult
imagine such a large and cumbersome mechanism as polyudye. After all, if
to the assaults of the gluttonous and greedy mass of Kyiv combatants constantly
exposed to the same areas along the Dnieper and Desna, the population of these
places would simply scatter, go deep into the tribal territory, away from
dangerous roundabout. If this did not happen, then the local
princes, protecting their position in the tribe and striving for a uniform
distribution of the Kyiv tribute, guaranteed the delivery of a fixed tribute to
polyudya camps.
Violation of the agreement with Kyiv could lead to the fact that Polyudie
would turn into a campaign against this or that tribal union. So
polyudye should be thought of not as the primary form of tribute collection, but as
the final phase of this process, which also included local tribal squads.
The most extensive tribal union was the Krivichi. The tribute that follows from them,
was supposed to flock to their capital - Smolensk. He was the crossroads between
Novgorod and Kyiv and, as has already been found out, the turning point of a great
polyudya. Because of this, we should not be surprised by the presence near Smolensk
huge camp - the city of IX-X centuries in Gnezdovo. Kurgan cemetery IX--XI
Nasonov had every reason to say: "There is no doubt that in old Smolensk
IX-XI centuries, its own strong feudal nobility developed, the wealth of which
reveals the contents of Gnezdovo burials. She grew up on a local root:
the Gnezdov mounds for the most part belonged to the Krivichi, as everyone admits
archaeologists. One might think that the wealth and power of this nobility rested on
exploitation of the dependent and semi-dependent population". This one, which grew up on
local root tribal nobility and could be an intermediate link between
Krivichi village and the polyud of the Kyiv prince, which in no way
could cover the entire vast territory of the Krivichi.
An interesting and full of colorful details story about polyudye contains
Russian chronicle under the year 945. Prince Igor Stary has just made two
trip to Byzantium. During the first sea campaign in 941, Igor
led a squadron of 10,000 ships. The figure is probably exaggerated, but
the Russian fleet nevertheless fought then the entire southwestern coast of the Black Sea:
Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Heraclea Pontica and Nicomedia. Even the Bosphorus suffered
("Court all pozhgosha"). Only the famous Greek flamethrowers that fired "like
same million", drove the Russians away from Constantinople.
Immediately after the failure, Prince Igor began to prepare a new campaign. Kyiv
overseas Varangians and steppe Pechenegs were hired by the prince (they even
hostages were taken) distant northern squads of Slovenes and
Krivichi and southern troops of the Dniester Tivertsy. The army marched in 943 and
by land, and by sea. The Greeks of Chersonesus informed Emperor Roman: "Behold
Russia is a ship without a number - the ships covered the essence of the sea!
When Igor was already at the Danube, the emperor sent ambassadors for peace to him.
Igor began to confer with the squad, which was glad to receive
tribute from the empire: "... food [hardly] anyone knows, someone to overcome - are we, they
whether? Does anyone have advice with the sea? Behold, we do not walk on the earth, but on the depths of the seas
and let's all die in common..." Taking a ransom from the Greeks, Igor returned to Kyiv, and on
the following year he concluded an agreement with Roman and Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
allowing Russia to send to Constantinople for the sake of bargaining "a ship, a
want ... come in peace. "The agreement was approved in Kyiv in the cathedral
the church of St. Elijah on Podil and on the hill near the idol of Perun.
The double pressure on Byzantium in 941 and 943 may have been caused by
some obstacles that the Greeks put up for Russian trade, despite
an agreement of 911 concluded with the father of Roman and Constantine. A number of restrictions
is also contained in the agreement of 941, but the way for Russian ships to the shopping center
world - Tsargrad - was opened. Kiev government, heavily spent
on the organization of two grandiose flotillas (of which one was badly damaged)
and export in particular.
The appearance in Kyiv of the Varangian detachments hired by Igor should be dated
the very end of the 930s, when the Varangian governor Sveneld is mentioned. For
the war of these tribal alliances with Kyiv. Street city Crossed (near the Dnieper)
resisted Igor for three years, but he finally
tribute and give away to Svendeld."
This phrase is often understood as an award, the transfer of the right to collect tribute, but
the grammatical form of the phrase makes it possible to understand it in only one sense: tribute,
received by Igor, he, Igor, gave to Sveneld in 940. Exclude Participation
Varangian warriors in the collection of Drevlyanskaya or street tribute is impossible, but we are talking about
about the legal side. When, five years later, Igor went to collect
the Drevlyan tribute himself, the chronicler did not show with a single hint that this
violated the rights of Sveneld. The Varangian simply did not have them: he received
In 942, after the defeat of the Russian army by the Greeks, perhaps, as
compensation to the Varangians who participated in the ill-fated campaign, Varangian governor
received the Drevlyansk tribute, which caused a murmur from the Kyiv squad: "Behold, thou hast given
one man is many." The people of Kiev began to envy the Vikings:
dressed up are the essence of weapons and party, and we are the Nazis. Yes, go, prince with us in tribute
Yes, and you will get it, and we will."
After the conclusion of the treaty of 944, which strengthened the position of Russia,
the need for a Varangian mercenary army has significantly decreased (Igor reigns
"having peace to all countries"), and in the fall of 945 the Kyiv prince returned the land
Drevlyans to the former system of their Kyiv polyudye, when the prince began his
a circular detour from the Drevlyans.
945 year. "And autumn came and began to think about the Drevlyans, although think
a big tribute ... And listen to them [combatants] Igor - go to Dereva in tribute and
come to the first tribute and force them and his men. And take tribute, go to
your city. Going back to him, thinking, he said to his squad: "Go with
giving the house, but I will return [to the Drevlyans] and look like more. "And, let the squad
your home, with a small squad, return, wanting more property.
The tribute, obviously, was charged for a long time, since Igor increased it,
came up with new requisitions for the "first tribute". When Igor reappeared,
"wishing more estates", a curious thing happens inside the Drevlyan society
consolidation of all layers: the Drevlyans and their
local princes, led by the "prince of princes" Mal.
"Hearing the Drevlyans, as if to go again [Igor] and thinking the Drevlyans with
prince with your Malm: "If you enter a sheep in a sheep, then carry out the whole flock,
not to kill him. So and so - if we don’t kill him, then destroy us all!
And sent to him, saying: "Almost go again - you caught everything
tribute." And Igor did not listen to them. And he went out of the city of Iskorosten against
Drevlyans, having killed Igor and his squad, there were not enough of them. And Igor was buried;
and there is his tomb at the Iskorosten city in the Trees and to this day.
The Byzantine writer Leo the Deacon gives one detail about Igor's death:
"... going on a campaign against the Germans (?), He was taken prisoner by them, tied
to the tree trunks and torn in two ... "
The Drevlyans, who executed Igor by the verdict of the veche, considered themselves in their
right. Ambassadors who arrived in Kyiv to woo the widow of Igor for the Drevlyansky prince
Olga, they told her:
"Because your husband is like a wolf, crying out and robbing. And our princes are kind
essence, even they have destroyed the essence of the Derevsky land ... "
Before us again, as in the case of the Vyatichi, is an alliance of tribes with
his hierarchy of local princes. There are many princes; in conflict with Kyiv they
are somewhat idealized and described as good shepherds. At the head of the union
Prince Mal stands, corresponding to the "light-malik", the "head of heads" among the Vyatichi. He
feels almost equal to the prince of Kyiv and boldly wooed him
widow. Archaeologists know his domain city in the Drevlyansk land,
still bearing his name - Malin.
It is noteworthy that at the beginning of Igor's polyudya, none of these princes
protested against the collection of tribute, did not organize a rebuff to Igor, everything, obviously,
it was all right. The good princes killed Igor the lawless when he
became a violator of the established order, violated the norms of rent. It's one more time
convinces us that the polyudie was not a simple disorderly journey, but
well-established most important state affair, in the process of execution
which was the consolidation of the feudal class and at the same time
a multi-stage feudal hierarchy was established.
Local princes of various ranks (they themselves lived at the expense of the tribes they "pasom")
contributed to the collection of polyudya by their overlord, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, and he, in
in turn, did not forget his vassals in diplomatic representations
emperors of Byzantium. Igor, a year before his death, sent an embassy to
Constantinople on behalf of the "Grand Duke of Russia and on behalf of any
princedom and from all the people of the Russian land. "The treaty of 944 provides
the self-will of vassals, common for a society with a feudal hierarchy, and
Arrière-vassals: "Is there anyone from princes or from Russian people ...
transgress it, the hedgehog is written on this charter - he will be worthy with his weapons
die and be cursed by God and Perun!
Polyudie existed in every tribal union; it marked
a departure from patriarchal tribal relations and traditions, where each member
tribe knew his tribal prince by sight. Polyudie within the union of tribes,
appearing, presumably, simultaneously with the formation of the union itself, was
already a transitional form to a class society, to statehood. Power
"prince of princes" broke away from ancient local traditions and related
ties, became multi-stage ("prince of princes", prince of a tribe,
"elders" of childbirth).
When several unions of tribes, voluntarily or involuntarily, became part of
Russia, then the separation of the supreme power from the direct producers became
complete. State power was completely abstracted, and the right to land,
which from time immemorial has been associated in the view of tillers with labor and
hereditary right of his microscopic "world", was now bound
already with the right of supreme (alienated) power, with the right of military force.
The feudal hierarchy as a system to a certain extent cemented the new
society, forming a chain of interconnected links: its higher links
("bright princes") were connected, on the one hand, with grand duke, and
the other - with the princes of individual tribes. Tribal princes were associated with
boyars. The vassalage, which grew out of the microstructure of primitive society,
was the natural form for the feudal state.
The sum of sources dating back to the beginning of the 9th century allows us to give a summary
review of the socio-political stratigraphy of Russia:
1. "Grand Duke Russian". "Khakan-Rus" (a title equal to the imperial one).
2. "Heads of heads", "bright princes" (princes of tribal unions).
3. "Every prince" - the princes of individual tribes.
4. "Great boyars".
5. "Boyars", "men", "knights" (Persian "Morovvat").
6. Merchant guests.
7. "People". Smerdy.
8. servants. Slaves.
The cumbersome and complex polyudya mechanism could operate under the condition
coherence and subordination of all links. Subordination violation
led to wars. The chronicle repeatedly says that this or that
the union of the tribes "zaratishasya", "named army" with the Kyiv prince. Statehood
Russia as a whole was affirmed in the heavy confrontation of different forces.
Konstantin Porphyrogenitus described the state of Russia at the time when
polyudie as the primary form of rent was already living out in recent years.
tribes to superunions-states, that is, the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. Absolutely
it is natural that it was this time that was the time of the birth of wide
trade relations of Russia with the East and Byzantium: polyudye was not only
feeding the prince and his squad, but also a way of enriching those values,
which the nascent Russian craft could not yet give.
Polyudie fed the Kyiv squad and its servants for half a year; throughout
probability, polyudye guaranteed food supplies for the second,
summer, half of the year, when the sale of the most valuable part of the tribute took place,
collected by black coons, beavers, silver foxes, squirrels. With
evidence is connected with people, the misunderstanding of which sometimes led
researchers to the idea of the unfamiliarity of the Rus with agriculture:
"The Rus do not have arable land, but eat only what they bring from the earth
Slavs" (Ibn-Ruste). "Always 100-200 of them (Rus) go to the Slavs and
forcibly take from them for their maintenance while they are there" (Gardizi).
All this is perfectly explained by polyud. Export part of polyudye
consisted of furs, wax and honey; to hunting and beekeeping products
servants were added, slaves willingly bought on international markets and in
Muslim Caliphate, and in Christian Byzantium. Introduction to the system
sales polyudya with particular persuasiveness will show the state character
action Kievan Rus IX-X centuries.
Polyudya sales
The center of international trade relations in Eastern Europe was undoubtedly
Kyiv. Kyiv and the Russian merchants - the "Ruzari" were well known in Central and
Northern Europe, provided them with significant benefits, since they are armed
in their hands they made their way through the nomadic barriers of the Khazars, Magyars, Pechenegs,
internal Bulgarians and supplied Europeans with the luxury of oriental bazaars. up to
before crusades Kyiv has not lost its importance as an important trade
center of Europe.
The well-worn path led from Kyiv to the west to Krakow and further to Regensburg
on the Danube. Through Kyiv (and thanks to Kyiv) there was a path "from the Greeks to the Varangians",
connecting Byzantium with Scandinavia. important and well organized
way from Kyiv to Bulgar on the Volga. It was divided into 20 stations,
located approximately 70 kilometers apart. For
messengers who rode light, it was a day's journey, and for merchants who walked "with
heavy burdens" -- two days of travel and a day of rest at the station.
On the Russian lands to the east, the path went through the following city-station: Kyiv
Settlement on the Suloe - Priluk - Romen - Vyr (?) - Lipitsky settlement -
modern villages have retained the archaic name of ancient road stations
IX-XI centuries "Istobnoye" (from "istba" - warm room, "warm camp");
they are exactly 70 kilometers apart.
The tenth station, which falls in the middle of the way between Bulgar and Kyiv,
was somewhere near the Don, south of Voronezh. Here, according to Eastern sources
(Jeyhani, Idrisi), was the eastern border of Russia. Oriental
travelers moving from the Bulgar to the west first overcame
desert Mordovian forests and meadows, and then ended up on the Don, where this
the land road was crossed by the Don river route from the Vyatichi to the Volga and
Itil. It was on this road that they made their observations about life and life.
Having reached, after two months of travel, the western end of his road at 1400
kilometers, Bulgarian or other eastern merchants ended up in Kyiv, on
banks of the Dnieper, which they called the river "Duna", then "Rus". Here, in
Middle Dnieper, near Kyiv, Eastern authors indicate three
Russian cities that have become a bone of contention between several dozen
modern scientists. One of the most reliable sources, Hudud al-Alem,
reports:
"There is also the river Rusa (Duna), flowing from the depths of the land of the Slavs and
flowing in an easterly direction up to the border of the Rus. Then she passes
within the boundaries of Artab, Salab and Kuyaba (Kyiv), which are the cities of the Rus ... "
Idrisi, who had a huge library of eastern geographical
literature of the IX-XI centuries, the only one of all authors indicates the distance
between these three cities of the Rus, located on the same river: from the city
Artan to Kyiv - 4 days of travel; to the city of Slavia - also 4 days of travel.
Ignoring the precise guidelines given above, the researchers
considered the notorious "three centers of Ancient Russia" as some
state associations that covered every large space. Kyiv
(Kuyaba, Kuyfa, etc.) did not cause much doubt and was usually identified with
historical Kyiv, the center of South Russia.
"Slavia", as a rule, was compared with the Novgorod Slovenes and
Novgorod, although not a single source - neither Russian, nor Scandinavian, nor
Greek - Novgorod did not call Slavic. This was influenced
Normanism, which sought to artificially create some kind of state
center in the north. Contributed to such broad constructions and the fact that in
Arabic texts often confused the concepts of "city" and "country".
The definition of the third city, the name
which varies in two dozen forms. More varied searches
Artania or Arsania (both forms are extremely conditional) on the geographical map IX--X
centuries. In Artania, they saw the Mordovians-Erzya, and Tmutarakan, and Ryazan, and Rostov ...
Without going into the vast literature on the "three
centers", we will try to outline the path of their search, based on the above
landmarks:
1) all three cities are on the same river as Kyiv, that is
on the Dnieper;
2) they are all located near Kyiv, at a distance that
ranges from 140 to 280 kilometers.
Such a constellation of Russian cities in the Middle Dnieper region is very good for us
known from documents of the 10th century, these are the cities mentioned by agreements with the Greeks
Kyiv, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. Distance from Kyiv to Chernihiv -- 140
kilometers; to Pereyaslavl - about 100 kilometers; from Pereyaslavl to
Chernihiv - 170 kilometers. This triad is constantly referred to as
the main cities of the Russian land in the narrow sense. The city of Slavia is not to be found
in the north, about which the eastern geographers had no idea.
Slavia - Pereyaslavl (or Pereslav), ancient city standing near the Dnieper and
closest to the "inner Bulgarians". There is only one thing in attracting Chernihiv
disagreement with the source - Chernigov is located not on the Dnieper, but on the Desna.
After getting acquainted with the characteristics of all three cities, instead of Chernigov
another variant of confining Artania can be proposed.
In Khudud al-Alem, these three cities of Russia are characterized as follows:
"Kuyaba is the city of Russia, closest to the countries of Islam, a pleasant place and
the residence of the king. Various furs and valuable swords are taken out of it.
Glory is a pleasant city, and from it, when peace reigns, they go to trade in
Bulgarian district.
Artab is a city where foreigners are killed when they get there. There
produce valuable sword blades and swords that can be folded in two,
but if you let them go, they return to their previous state.
Bulgar, noting that Kyiv is larger than Bulgar.
It is always very important for us to identify the point of view of informants.
Ibn Haukal, one of the earliest writers, writes: "And people reach with
trading purposes of Cuiaba and its region". That is why Kyiv is considered the most
close to Islamic countries; that's why they compare it with Bulgar - they did it
merchants who followed the road familiar to us in 20 stations, starting in Bulgar and
ended in Kyiv.
Merchants get to Kyiv through the city of Romen (modern Romny, near Idrisi -
"Armen"), really located on this main road. City
Slavia is described by Idrisi as the most important. Perhaps it affected here
comprehension of the name of the city - Preslav, "glorious", or an analogy with
Bulgarian capital Preslav
The most difficult situation is with the third city, conventionally called
Artania, or, as the Persian Anonymous calls him, Urtab. Additions to
to what has been said above are as follows: having told about the murder of foreigners, Idrisi adds,
that in this city "no one is allowed to enter for the purpose of trade ... and they take out
from there (furs and lead) merchants from Cuiaba. "Ibn Haukal also writes that
the inhabitants of Arsa do not let strangers in, "they themselves go down the water for trade and
tell nothing about their deeds and their goods, and do not allow anyone to
follow you and enter your country."
On the Dnieper, 120 kilometers (three and a half days of travel in a straight line) from
Kyiv, at the mouth of the Ros River was the city of Roden (in the prepositional case in the annals "in
Rodny"), from which now remains a settlement on a high mountain - Knyazhya Gora.
The city became deserted with the adoption of Christianity, and during the XI-XIII centuries, no
never mentioned in chronicles, although there were many events in its vicinity.
Judging by the location in the middle of the range of antiquities of the Rus of the VI-VII centuries,
Roden could be the tribal center of the Rus and be called by the name of the main
the god of the ancient Slavs - Rod. He was compared with Osiris, Baad Gad and
biblical Sabaoth. It was a deity more significant than his successor
retinue-princely Perun.
Such an assumption would fully explain the chronicle phrase (perhaps taken
from Greek sources of the 9th century) "Give birth, we call Russia ...". Name
the union of tribes according to a common deity can also be traced in the name of the Krivichi, named
so according to the ancient native (Lithuanian) god Kriva - Krivite. Russians on the river
Rosi could get their name from the god Rod, whose place of worship was Roden
Under Svyatoslav, there was obviously a princely domain here, since there
was his "terem yard", During the struggle for the throne of Kyiv in 980
year, the prince took refuge here (perhaps counting on the sacredness of the place?)
Yaropolk, but after a long siege was killed by hired Vikings. The town was
in all likelihood, widely known in Russia, since after this difficult
sieges about him formed a saying that existed for more than a century: "and there are
this parable to this day - "trouble, like in Rodny," wrote a contemporary
Monomakh.
God Rod was the supreme deity of heaven and the universe. They brought him
god of thunder), documented for the Slavs of the Rodnya region by the calendar of the 4th century
AD, and in 983 at this time a young Varangian was sacrificed,
living in Kyiv. Sacrificing strangers, captives, to their gods,
defeated enemies was common in ancient times among many peoples and wore
special name (Greek) "xenoctonia". Obviously this custom
annual sacrifices and gave birth to foreign writers those sections of their
writings that talk too broadly about the murder of foreigners in general.
The ban on entry into the Urtaba region for the purpose of trade is quite understandable in that
case, if we identify Urtab (Artania) with Rhodium. Here, near Vitichev
(the city mentioned by Constantine in connection with polyudy), accumulated
odnodrevki before sailing to Byzantium. Here in the last, protected by forest
islands section of the Dnieper, obviously, the final equipment was made
fleet and sorting of goods intended for sale in distant
international markets. Merchants and spies were not needed here. Urtab-Roden
he was not excluded from trade, but Kyiv, people "from Cuiaba" were in charge of the local trade;
not without reason in this city almost at the very border of Russia there was a "terem yard"
Prince Svyatoslav.
The most logical is such an identification of "three cities
Cuiaba -- Kyiv
Glory - Pereyaslavl
"Arta" - Roden at the mouth of the Ros.
All three cities are on the same river - on the Dnieper.
Cuiabá, "the city closest to the countries of Islam", is so named because
informants got into it along the main road from Bulgar to Kyiv. Two
other cities were already aloof from this highway: Artania is 4 days away
(down the river) from Kyiv, and Slavia is 4 days from Artania, if you sail up
along the Dnieper from the mouth of the Ros to Pereyaslavl.
A story passed from essay to essay about the export of flexible steel
swords from Kyiv and Urtab finds confirmation in the legend of the Khazars about their attempt
pay tribute to the fields. In response to a demand for tribute
"having thought of the Glade and breathing in from the smoke - a sword ... And deciding the old men
kosarstii: "tribute is unkind, prince ... so imati imati tribute on us and on others
countries. "Behold, it will come true everywhere."
The Kievan legend about the Khazars could also be known in the Khazar east.
Slavia trades with the Bulgarians. Pereyaslavl is located closer than other cities
to the "internal Bulgarians" of the Left Bank, constantly at war with the Rus; this and
explains the reservation regarding bargaining when "when there is peace."
Urtab-Roden. Here, in the place of concentration of the merchant fleet with polyudye,
to a city controlled by the Grand Duke of Kyiv himself (and still
called Prince's Mountain), do not let foreign traders. Here, in
the sanctuary of Rod (after whom the city is named) was sacrificed by strangers.
All this together shrouded the area of the Knyazhya Gora with various legends, the creation
which Kyiv could contribute purposefully. The name of this city is
varies in Arabic script and such different cities are substituted for
deciphering that the equating of Urtab with Rodnya is, perhaps, one of
the most successful options.
Kuyaba, Slavia and Urtab are not three states, not three "centers of Russia",
but just Kyiv and two neighboring cities that played an important role in the life
Kievan Rus and interested the Eastern merchants who arrived in Kyiv from the Bulgars.
They took the governors of the princes (or their sons) for "kings" and repeated
legends about the most remote city of Rodna, where they were ordered to go. Already to
At the beginning of the 10th century, the place of Rodnya was taken by Chernihiv, which was included in the triad of the most important
Russian cities.
Every spring, Kievan Rus carried out its second state
task - the export of a huge amount of goods received in six months
circular detour. Tribute collectors turned into seafarers and
caravan-bashes, into warriors making their way through nomadic barriers, and into
merchants who sold what they brought with them and bought everything that they produced
rich East, blinding the then Europeans with its luxury.
Boats filled with barrels of wax and honey, furs of beavers, silver
foxes and other goods, were preparing to sail to distant seas in Kyiv itself and
neighboring cities on the Dnieper - Vyshgorod, Vitichev, where there was a signal
a tower that announced with fire the approach of the Pechenegs, Pereyaslavl Russian and
Rodna. The southernmost harbor-fortress on the border river Sula in 10
kilometers from the Dnieper was the city of Zhelni (the ancient settlement of Voin), a peculiar
a structure where ships that left Russia could, in the event of unfavorable news,
take refuge in a coastal fortification, into which the boats entered directly from
"In the month of June, moving along the Dnieper River, they (one-trees of the Rus)
descend to Vitichev, a fortress subject to Russia. After waiting there for two or three days,
until all the one-trees come up, they move on their way and go down the named
the Dnieper River" (Konstantin Porphyrogenitus).
service) the difficult and dangerous passage of the flotilla through the Dnieper rapids.
He gives the names of the thresholds both in Slavonic and in Russian, taking
official position of a contemporary of Sveneld, who served Russia, for his
nationality.
"Russian" - the names of the thresholds (in fact, in some cases
Scandinavian) - brought great joy to the Normanists, but in fact
they do not prove anything more than the presence of the Varangians in the service of the Kyiv
prince, which is already known as from the agreement of Russia with the same Constantine,
and from the annalistic reference that Igor at that very time hired the Varangians
for war with the Greeks.
"The first threshold is called Essupi, which in Russian and Slavic means
"Do not sleep!". This threshold is so narrow that it does not exceed the width of the hippodrome.
In the middle of it, steep and high rocks, like islands, protrude.
Aspiring to them and rising, and from there overthrowing down, the water produces
loud noise and inspires fear.
The Russians hardly dragged their ships over every threshold, sometimes even
pulling the luggage out of them and dragging the boats along the shore. So they got to
"Crary crossing" (Kichkas), which was used by merchants of Chersonesos,
who went to Russia. All this way passed under the shelling of the Pechenegs.
Having passed the rapids, on the island of Khortytsya (near modern Zaporozhye)
"... the Russians make their sacrifices, as there grows a huge
oak. They bring live roosters, stick arrows all around, while others put pieces
bread, meat...
From Khortitsa, the Russians sail to the island of Berezan near the mouth of the Dnieper and there
are additionally equipped before sailing by sea. Then their path leads to
the mouth of the Dniester, and from there to the arm of the Danube to the Selina.
"Until they pass the Selina River, the Pechenegs gallop along the shore after them. And
if the sea, which often happens, throws single trees onto land, then they are all of them
dragged ashore to resist the Pechenegs together."
Swimming along the western coast of the Black Sea (to which we still
will have to return) ended in Constantinople, where the Russian "guests"
spent the whole summer, returning to Russia only for a new polyudya.
From the mouth of the Dnieper or from the island of Berezan, the upcoming sea route
Rusov bifurcated: one direction was the indicated path to Tsaryrad, and
Caliphate, which we already know from the story of Ibn-Hardadbeg in the middle of the 9th century.
"Rus-merchants are one of the sections of the Slavs. They carry squirrel furs,
silver foxes and swords from the extreme limits of the Slavs to the Black
("Roman") sea, and the Byzantine ruler takes a tithe from them. And then they
depart along the Don ("Tanais"), the Slavic river, pass to (Khamlidzhas
(of the Khazar capital), and its ruler takes a tithe from them.
An interesting option is the message of Ibn-al-Faqih:
"... the ruler of Byzantium takes a tithe from them. Then they go by sea to
Samkush-Jew, after which they turn to Slavonia. Then they take their way from
Slavic Sea (Azov), until they come to the Khazar Sleeve, where
the ruler of the Khazars takes a tithe from them. Then they go to the Khazar Sea along that
river, which is called the Slavic River ... "
It is important to note here, firstly, the passage of the Russian fleet through the Kerch
the strait, which belonged to the Khazars, who converted to Judaism ("Samkush-Jew"), and
secondly, the abundance of "Slavic" definitions: the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov is Slavic;
the lower reaches of the Tanais-Don - the Slavic River, the Northern Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov - Slavonia (?) and
even the Lower Volga, in its undoubtedly Khazar course, is also a "river of the Slavs."
Without trying to clarify these definitions, we only note that the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and
The Lower Dnieper, obviously, was indeed flooded in that era by the Slavs.
The annual expeditions of the Rus through Kerch Strait past Kerch and
Tmutarakan led to the emergence of new geographical names (if not
local residents, then from foreign geographers) associated with Russia:
Kerch - "the city of Russia",
Kerch Strait - "River Rusia",
section of the Black Sea near Tmutarakan (five days sailing from
Trebizond) - "Russian Sea".
It is not surprising that scientists often associated another problem with this area.
riddle of eastern geographical works - "Island of the Rus", in which
want to see Tmutarakan. There is no doubt that Kievan Rus under
significant scope of its trading operations in the south were urgently needed
some strongholds on the Black Sea, but Tmutarakan, which was before
960s in the power of the Khazars, hardly fits the definition of "Islands
Rusov" (although it was called an island).
Having made a difficult and expensive way in terms of the amount of duties through Khazaria (300
kilometers along the Sea of Azov, 400 kilometers up the Don and portages and 400
kilometers down the Volga), the Russian flotilla entered the Caspian Sea,
called Khazar, then Khorezm (in the annals "Khvalis"), then
Dzhurdzhansky, then Khorasansky.
Ibn-Khordadbeg, continuing his story about the Rus, reports
interesting information about the distant sea and land routes of Russian
From Khazaria "they go to the Dzhurdzhan Sea and land on
any shore. And the diameter of this sea is 500 farsangs. (Ibn Faqih preserved
one more detail of this text: "... and they sell everything that they have with them; and
it all reaches Ray"). And sometimes they bring their goods on camels from
Dzhurdzhan to Baghdad, where Slavic slaves serve as interpreters for them. And
they pretend to be Christians and pay a soul tax. Option: "... they go
to the Jurjan Sea, then to Balkh and Maverannakhr, then to nomad camps
toguz-guz, then to China".
We must fully trust the report of Ibn-Khor-dadbeg, since he himself
was in Ray, and the path of Russian merchants from Ray to Baghdad (about 700
kilometers) passed through the Jebel region, over which Ibn Khordadbeg
served as postmaster. Russian caravans annually
In addition to these long journeys associated with overseas trips, there was
another overland trans-European route, one of the most important links
which was Kyiv. It began on the eastern edge of Europe, on the Volga, in
the capital of Volga Bulgaria, in the city of Bulgar. From Maverannahr and Khorasan
through the "gates of the Guzes" caravan routes to the Bulgar led to the north. brought here
northern merchants the Volga river route. From Bulgar to Itil and further to the Caspian
the Volga flowed.
Informants of Eastern geographers very often took as a starting point
Bulgar. Numismatists believe that one of the most important distribution points
of eastern coins of the IX-X centuries was Bulgar.
We have already seen what an important highway was the well
well-worn, carefully measured and equipped with "manzil" ("messenger camps")
way from Bulgar to Kyiv, according to Jeykhani. But this path did not stop at
Kyiv; Kyiv was only the limit of knowledge of the eastern geographers of the 10th century. Probably,
here, in the capital of Russia, an active role passed to Russian merchants, who in
Western Europe was called "ruzaria".
The way from Kyiv to the west was hardly the only way to sell the tribute collected from
Russian lands; in all likelihood, to Russian furs exported to the west,
added the share of oriental goods brought by Muslim merchants from
Bulgar to Kyiv or purchased by the Rus during their overseas travels.