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For several decades now, psychologists have been persistently interested in two modes of thought: the one that triggers the portrait of an angry woman, and the one that triggers the multiplication task. There are many names for these modes. I am using terms originally coined by psychologists Keith Stanovich and Richard West and will be talking about two systems of thought: System 1 and System 2.
System 1 works automatically and very quickly, with little or no effort and no sense of intentional control.
System 2 highlights the attention needed for conscious mental effort, including complex calculations. System 2 actions are often associated with a subjective sense of activity, choice, and concentration.
The concepts of System 1 and System 2 are widely used in psychology, but I go further in this book: it can be read as a psychological drama with two characters.
When we think of ourselves, we mean System 2 - the conscious, intelligent self that has beliefs, makes choices and decides what to think and do. Although System 2 considers itself to be the main actor, in reality the hero of this book is the automatically responding System 1. I believe that it effortlessly generates impressions and feelings, which are the main source of System 2 beliefs and conscious choices. The automatic actions of System 1 generate amazingly complex thought patterns, but only the slower System 2 can arrange them into an ordered sequence of steps. The following will describe the circumstances in which System 2 takes control, restricting the free impulses and associations of System 1. You are invited to consider the two systems as two entities, each with its own unique abilities, limitations, and functions.
Here is what System 1 can do (examples are ranked in ascending order of complexity):
Determine which of the two objects is closer.
Orient yourself towards the source of the harsh sound.
Finish the phrase "Bread with ...".
Draw a grimace of disgust at the sight of a vile picture.
Determine the hostility in the voice.
Solve example 2 + 2 =?
Read the words on the big billboards.
Drive a car on an empty road.
Make a strong chess move (if you are a grandmaster).
Understand a simple sentence.
Determine that the description "a quiet, neat person who pays a lot of attention to detail" is similar to a stereotype associated with a certain profession.
All of these actions are in the same category as the reaction to an angry woman: they occur automatically and require no (or almost no) effort. System 1 capabilities include our inner skills that we share with other animals. We are born ready to perceive the world around us, recognize objects, direct attention, avoid losses and be afraid of spiders. Other activities of the mind become quick and automatic after much practice. System 1 remembered the connection between ideas (the capital of France?) and learned to recognize and understand the subtleties of situations that arise in communication. Some skills, like the ability to find good moves in chess, are acquired only by expert experts. Other skills are given to many. To determine the similarity of a description of a person with a stereotype of a profession, broad linguistic and cultural knowledge is required, which many people have. Knowledge is stored in memory and we access it without conscious intention or effort.
Some of the actions on this list are completely involuntary. You can't stop yourself from understanding simple sentences in your native language or noticing a loud, unexpected sound; you can't stop yourself from knowing that 2 + 2 = 4, or remember Paris if someone mentions the capital of France. A number of activities, such as chewing, can be controlled, but they are usually performed on autopilot. Attention is controlled by both systems. Orientation to a loud sound usually happens involuntarily, using System 1, and then the attention of System 2 is immediately and purposefully mobilized. still pay attention to it, at least for a while. However, attention can be diverted from an unwanted object, and the best way is to focus on another goal.
The various functions of System 2 have one thing in common: they all require attention and are interrupted when attention is switched. For example, using System 2, you can do the following:
Prepare for the signal to start the race.
Watch the clowns at the circus.
Hear the voice of the right person in a crowded noisy room.
Note the gray-haired woman.
Identify the surprising sound by rummaging through memory.
Intentionally speed up the pace.
Monitor the appropriateness of behavior in a particular social situation.
Count the number of letters "a" in the text.
Dictate your phone number to the interlocutor.
Park where there is little space (unless you are a professional valet).
Compare two washing machines for price and features.
Fill out a tax return.
Check the consistency of complex logical arguments.
In all these situations, you need to be attentive, and if you are not ready or distracted, then you will cope worse or not cope at all. System 2 can change the operation of System 1 by reprogramming the normal automatic functions of attention and memory. For example, while waiting for a relative at a crowded train station, you can tune in to look for a gray-haired woman or a bearded man, and thus increase the chances of seeing her or him from a distance. You can stretch your memory to remember the names of the capitals that begin with the letter "H", or the novels of French existentialist writers. When you rent a car at London Heathrow Airport, you will probably be reminded that "we drive on the left side". In all these cases, you are being asked to do something out of the ordinary, and you will find that it takes constant effort to do so.
We often use the phrase "be careful" - and it is quite fair. We have a limited amount of attention that can be allocated to various activities, and if we go beyond the available, then nothing will work. The peculiarity of such activities is that they interfere with each other, and that is why it is difficult or even impossible to perform several at once. It is impossible to calculate the product of 17 24 when turning left in heavy traffic; not even worth trying. You can do several things at once, but only if they are easy and do not require too much attention. It's probably possible to talk to someone sitting next to you if you're driving down an empty highway, and many parents find—albeit with some embarrassment—that they can read a story to their child while thinking about something else.
Everyone is more or less aware of the limitations of attention, and our behavior in society takes into account these limitations. For example, if a car driver overtakes a truck on a narrow road, adult passengers quite reasonably keep silent. They know not to distract the driver; in addition, they suspect that he is temporarily "deaf" and will not hear their words.
Focusing on something, people, in fact, "go blind", not noticing what usually attracts attention. This was best illustrated by Christopher Chabry and Daniel Simons in The Invisible Gorilla. They made a short film about a basketball game where the teams play in white and black jerseys. Spectators are asked to count the number of passes that the players in white shirts will make, ignoring the players in black. This is a difficult task that requires full attention. About halfway through the video, a woman in a gorilla suit comes into the frame, crosses the set, thumps her chest, and walks away. She is in the frame for 9 seconds. The video was seen by thousands of people, but about half of them did not notice anything unusual. Blindness comes from the task of counting, especially from instructions to ignore one of the teams. Spectators who have not received this task will not miss the gorilla. Seeing and navigating are automatic functions of System 1, but they are performed only if some amount of attention is devoted to the corresponding external stimuli. According to the authors, the most remarkable thing about their study is that people are very surprised by its results. Spectators who have not noticed the gorilla are at first sure that it was not there - they are not able to imagine that they missed such an event. The gorilla experiment illustrates two important facts: we can be blind to the obvious and, moreover, we do not notice our own blindness.
Summary
The interaction of two systems is a cross-cutting theme of this book, so it is worth briefly describing its contents. So, while we are awake, both systems are working - System 1 and System 2. System 1 works automatically, and System 2 is in a comfortable mode of minimal effort, in other words, only a small part of its capabilities are used. System 1 constantly generates suggestions for System 2: impressions, hunches, intentions, and feelings. If System 2 approves them, then impressions and premonitions turn into beliefs, and impulses into intentional actions. When everything goes smoothly—and it almost always does—System 2 accepts System 1's suggestions with little or no change. As a rule, you believe your impressions and act according to your desires, and this is usually quite acceptable.
When System 1 encounters difficulties, it turns to System 2 to solve the current problem with more detailed and focused processing. System 2 is mobilized when a question arises that System 1 does not have an answer to, as you probably did when you saw the 17 × 24 multiplication example. A conscious rush of attention is also felt when you are caught off guard. System 2 comes into play when an event is detected that disrupts the model of the environment in System 1's view. In its world, light bulbs don't bounce, cats don't bark, and gorillas don't walk on basketball courts. The gorilla experiment shows that attention is required to detect unexpected stimuli. Surprise or surprise engages and directs your attention: you stare intently and try to find an explanation for the amazing event in your memory. System 2 is responsible for constantly monitoring your behavior - it is thanks to it that you are able to remain polite in a rage and attentive when driving at night. System 2 mobilizes if it detects that you are about to make a mistake. Recall how you almost blurted out something offensive - and how difficult it was for you to control yourself. In general, most of what you (your System 2) think and do originates from System 1, but when things go wrong, System 2 takes over and usually has the final say.
The division of labor between System 1 and System 2 is very efficient: it gives the best performance with the least amount of effort. Most of the time, things work well because System 1 tends to do its job well: generating accurate situation models and short-term forecasts, and responding quickly and most often appropriately to emerging challenges. However, System 1 also has its distortions, the systematic errors that it tends to make under certain circumstances. As will be shown, at times she answers not the asked questions, but the easier ones, and is not well versed in logic and statistics. Another limitation of System 1 is that it cannot be disabled. When you see a word in a familiar language on the screen, you will read it - unless your attention is completely absorbed by something else.
Oleg Grigorievich Mityaev (born February 19, 1956, Chelyabinsk) is a Soviet and Russian singer-songwriter, musician, actor. Member of the Writers' Union of Russia. People's Artist of the Russian Federation (2009). Author and first performer of the song "It's great that we all gathered here today" (1978).
Mityaev's hometown is Chelyabinsk. His mother was a housewife, and his father was a pipe-rolling factory worker. There was never a mat in the family, everyone respected each other. When the boy was seven years old, he went to school. At first it was school number 59, then school number 55, and he graduated from the 68th school in Chelyabinsk.
According to Mityaev, he was not ready for the first grade, he did not meet the required level at all, he studied simply disgustingly, receiving only deuces and cola. School seemed to be a complete torment, where only changes and holidays were joyful events. Only by the eighth grade did he manage to reach fours and threes in the report card.
As a child, Oleg spent a lot of time fiddling with yard dogs and even dreamed as a child that he would be a “dog breeder”. He tamed them, fed them, built booths, hid them from traps.
The yard was "gangster" for the real, where there were a lot of punks and massacre. Hockey player Sergei Makarov, who became a multiple world champion, and famous hockey player Sergei Starikov grew up in the same yard. Among the guys were those who later ended up behind bars.
Despite the fact that the boy spent a lot of time in the yard, his parents watched him closely, and there was no question of any attempt to smoke, all this was immediately stopped. Mom was a strict person. Mityaev recalls that if he allowed himself to leave the house, slamming the door loudly, he always received it from his mother. For this he is very grateful to her, as she taught him to control himself, to be restrained.
Passion for the guitar began with Oleg, like many at that time. He tried to play even without knowing the chords. "Gypsy Girl" was generally played on a guitar, where there were only two strings. After all the strings appeared, the repertoire expanded significantly. Having heard the songs of Vizbor and Dolsky for the first time, Oleg learned the cassettes by heart, it was the same with Sukhanov's cassette.
The song "March of the Installers" was one of my favorites, and largely because of this, Mityaev decided to become an installer and entered the installation college in 1971. There he trained as an electrical engineer. The choice of profession happened quite by accident, it seemed to Oleg that this was precisely the real male work and real, real life. Having already begun to study, he realized his mistake, realized that it was not his, especially when he encountered such an exact science as strength of materials. The young man made a promise to himself that he would finish his studies, despite the fact that he had to travel through the whole frozen Chelyabinsk to study.
At this time, Mityaev became seriously interested in swimming, having received the first category. He was promised that if he played sports, the army could be avoided, but it turned out the opposite. Suddenly he was taken to serve in Moscow, where he, being a sailor in a beautiful naval uniform, served in the guard of the Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union.
After the service, it was decided to enter the Institute of Physical Education. Oleg graduated with honors in 1981, which he himself was very surprised at. He was a participant in all amateur art competitions. Starting from 1978, the future bard wrote songs, and from 1980 he began not only to write, but also to perform them wherever they were asked.
After graduating from the institute, Oleg Mityaev worked there as a teacher for four years and at the same time was the manager of a boarding house near Chelyabinsk. In the city philharmonic in 1985-1986 he worked as an artist. Mityaev began to think about the acting profession and in 1992 became a graduate of GITIS.
Even during the years of study at the Institute of Physical Education, the bard met Startsev, with whom he began performing. Bulat Okudzhava said at the time that in Mityaev's work one can feel an indomitable striving for perfection, which is sometimes much more important than an even, constant and average level.
Since 1987, the singer-songwriter began performing with Tarasov, releasing several discs and records together. And in 1992, Tarasov and Mityaev, together with the actors of the Moscow City Council Theater, took part in the production of "Big Vladimir", where Mityaev played the role of Mayakovsky. The premiere took place in Italy. Later, Mityaev began to work with Margolin. He goes on tour, his concerts usually last about three hours. They are more like improvisation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D4K7fR9UO_U&feature=youtu.be
Even in his youth, the future bard thought that he would have one wife for life. However, in reality it turned out differently. Not considering his personal life successful, he does not really like to talk about it. From his first marriage, which did not last long, he has a son, whose name is Sergey. The second marriage also broke up. His wife bore him two children. Now Mityaev lives with his third wife, raising a joint daughter. Their marriage has been going on for fourteen years. His wife is an actress of the Vakhtangov Theatre.
The bard carried love for his native Chelyabinsk through his whole life. He comes there to give concerts at least once a year, because he cannot live without this city, without breathing its air and walking around the familiar streets. According to Mityaev, he often has dreams about his childhood, his yard. He considers happiness that a person lives in this world.