Personality as an object and subject of psychological knowledge. Personality as an object and subject of social life Personality as a subject and object of sociology

29.09.2021

As noted by Kjell L. and Ziegler D. Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. SPb. - Peter - 1997., S. 24. Most of the theoretical definitions of personality contain the following general provisions:

* Most definitions emphasize individuality, or individual differences. There are such special qualities in the personality, thanks to which this person differs from all other people. Moreover, it is possible to understand what specific qualities or their combinations differentiate one person from another only by studying individual differences.

* In most definitions, a person appears as a kind of hypothetical structure or organization. An individual's behavior that is directly observable, at least in part, is seen as organized or integrated by the individual. In other words, personality is an abstraction based on the conclusions drawn from observation of human behavior.

* Most definitions emphasize the importance of considering personality in relation to the individual's life history or developmental prospects. Personality is characterized in the evolutionary process as subject to the influence of internal and external factors, including genetic and biological predisposition, social experience and changing environmental circumstances.

* In most definitions, personality is represented by those characteristics that are “responsible” for stable forms of behavior. Personality as such is relatively unchanging and constant through time and changing situations; it provides a sense of continuity in time and environment.

Despite the above points of contact, the definitions of personality by different authors vary significantly. But from all of the above, it can be noted that personality is most often defined as a person in the totality of his social, acquired qualities. This means that personal characteristics do not include such features of a person that are genotypically or physiologically determined, and in no way depend on life in society. The concept of “personality” usually includes such properties that are more or less stable and testify to the individuality of a person, determining his actions that are significant for people.

In everyday and scientific language, along with the term “personality”, such terms as “person”, “individual species”, “individuality” are very often found. Do they refer to the same phenomenon, or are there some differences between them? Most often, these words are used as synonyms, but if you approach strictly the definition of these concepts, you can find significant semantic shades. Man is the most general, generic concept, leading its origin from the moment of the isolation of Homo sapiens. An individual is a single representative of the human race, a specific carrier of all social and psychological traits of humanity: mind, will, needs, interests, etc. The concept of “individual” in this case is used in the meaning of “a specific person”. With such a formulation of the question, both the features of the action of various biological factors (age characteristics, gender, temperament) and the differences in the social conditions of human life are not fixed. However, it is impossible to completely ignore the effect of these factors. Obviously, there are great differences between the life activity of a child and an adult, a person of primitive society and more developed historical epochs. In order to reflect the specific historical features of human development at various levels of his individual and historical development, along with the concept of “individual species”, the concept of personality is also used. The individual in this case is considered as the starting point for the formation of the personality from the initial state, the personality is the result of the development of the individual, the most complete embodiment of all human qualities.

So, at the moment of birth, the child is not yet a person. He is just an individual. V.A. Chulanov notes that in order to form a personality, an individual needs to go through a certain path of development and indicates 2 groups of conditions for this development: biological, genetic inclinations, prerequisites and the presence of a social environment, the world of human culture with which the child interacts Sociology in questions and answers : Textbook./ed. Prof. V.A.Chulanova. - Rostov-on-Don. - Phoenix, 2000, p. 67..

Individuality can be defined as a set of features that distinguish one individual from another, and differences are made at various levels - biochemical, neurophysiological, psychological, social, etc.

Personality is the object of study in a number of humanities, primarily philosophy, psychology and sociology. Philosophy considers personality from the point of view of its position in the world as a subject of activity, cognition and creativity. Psychology studies personality as a stable integrity of mental processes. properties and relationships: temperament, character, abilities, etc.

The sociological approach, on the other hand, singles out the sociotypical in the personality. The main problematics of the sociological theory of personality is connected with the process of personality formation and the development of its needs in inseparable connection with the functioning and development of social communities, the study of the natural connection between the individual and society, the individual and the group, the regulation and self-regulation of the social behavior of the individual.

The system “personality as an object” appears as a certain system of scientific concepts that reflect some essential properties of the normative requirements imposed by social communities on their members Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology. Lecture course. - M.: Center, 1997 p. 72 ..

Personality as a subject of social relations is primarily characterized by autonomy, a certain degree of independence from society, capable of opposing itself to society. Personal independence is associated with the ability to dominate oneself, and this, in turn, implies the presence of self-awareness in a person, that is, not just consciousness, thinking and will, but the ability to introspection, self-esteem, self-control Ibid. - p.74..

In the history of the development of the human sciences, the main question had to be answered: thanks to what did a person, who, as a biological being, is weak and vulnerable, be able to successfully compete with animals, and later become the most powerful force?

Meanwhile, the fact that a person is a historical, social and cultural being makes it possible to understand that his “nature” is not something automatically given, it is built in each culture in its own way.

So, the concept of “personality” is introduced to highlight, emphasize the non-natural (“supernatural”, social) essence of a person and an individual, i.e. the emphasis is on the social principle. Personality is the integrity of a person's social properties, a product of social development and the inclusion of an individual in a system of social relations through vigorous activity and communication.

In sociology, personality is defined as:

The systemic quality of an individual, determined by his involvement in social relations and manifested in joint activities and communication;

The subject of social relations and conscious activity.

The concept of “personality” shows how each person individually reflects socially significant features and manifests his essence as the totality of all social relations.

1.2. Features of the relationship between the individual and society

public relations

The personality as a subject of social relations appears most clearly in role theory (R. Merton, R. Dahrendorf). Of domestic sociologists, role theory is developed by I.S. Con.

Role theory author T. Parsons draws a clear distinction between personality as a psychological structure and the subject of social action. The role theory of personality leads sociologists not only to the concept "role" - a model of the expected behavior of an individual, but also on the concept "status" personality - the place it occupies in this system, associated with a set of rights and obligations, the implementation of which forms the role. The concept of status is applicable not only to the individual, but also to various social groups and strata. Sometimes the concept of "status" is replaced by the terms "position", "social position".

Personality in role theory is a certain set of social roles that a person performs: student, mother, wife, young woman; teacher, scientist, father of the family, avid fisherman - rolled into one. The systematization of roles was also done by T. Parsons, who believed that the role is described by the following characteristics: a) emotional- attitude to the role, restrained or uninhibited; b) way to get- some roles are assigned to a person (crown prince), others are won; in) scale- president, academician, locksmith, teacher, banker; what matters here is that some of the roles in society are strictly limited by social resources or the structure of society, while the other is blurred; G) formalization- action within strictly established limits or relatively arbitrary; e) motivation- for what, for what purpose this or that role is performed.

The interaction between subjects in society is the interaction of their social roles. But a role is not just this or that social act. role is normative concept. What does this mean?

1. It's certain type role-appropriate behavior. So, for example, a student cannot take a ball in his hand and jump around the audience during a lecture, but a three-year-old child can do this.

2. Role is requirements to behavior, certain prescriptions; Thus, each professional, social role involves the performance of certain, for example, job duties by a person.

3. As a normative concept, a role in a certain way evaluated by others, the expected role contains an evaluative moment.

4.Sanction- the social, legal or moral consequences of not fulfilling the prescribed role. For failure to perform official duties, a person may be subject to both moral condemnation and legal sanctions.

The personality as a subject of action is characterized by the roles expected from it (student, teacher, dean, rector, cleaner), roles can be either prescribed, acceptable, unacceptable, or random, but most importantly, what happens through various social roles development of the essential forces of personality.

As for the role status personality, then this concept is institutionalized, that is, it is determined by the social institution in which a person operates, and depends on his specific activity and its types. For example, a high-ranking official may be a bad father or son. But his social status in society will still be determined by his position, education, prestige of the profession, power, etc., and not by relationships in the family. In order to concretize the concept of "status", the concept "informal status". Thus, the status of the leader of a student company differs from the status of the rector of an institute, and the status of a husband differs from that of a minister or head of government. status is social ranging. Here, various dramatic situations can arise with a person, when the status of a person in no way corresponds to his ideas about himself, the place that he occupies in society. So, in Soviet times, many talented artists, poets, writers, whose work did not fit into "socialist realism", worked as janitors, loaders, stokers. During the years of perestroika, part of the intelligentsia (doctors, teachers, mathematicians, "physicists and lyricists") became small traders, "shuttle traders", where the previous level of education and culture is not of decisive importance.

Status can be acquired from birth (nationality, social origin, place of birth), other statuses are achieved.

plays a special role general status of a person- with his rights and duties of a citizen of a particular country, a member of society.

Role theory develops ideas role conflict. It can be internal, within a set of roles (student - young father), such a conflict is called inter-role; most often there are conflicts between formal and informal roles. More serious role conflicts are conflicts associated with the failure to fulfill prescribed social roles, a conflict between the individual and society.

As a subject of social relations, a person is characterized by abilities, needs, attitudes, behavioral motives, value orientations and interests. All this can be realized through activities. The individual is individual and autonomous. It is characterized by a certain degree of independence. Personal independence is largely associated with the development of self-consciousness of the individual, his culture, will, abilities for introspection, self-control. It is clear that the higher the level of culture a person has, the more developed his self-consciousness is, the more he is independent and free from the environment. From this point of view, a person is a person who has determined his attitude to the social environment, spiritual, moral, aesthetic values of society.

But personality is also an object of social relations. It can develop only in society, under the influence of society. The impact of the social environment begins with the formation of an active individual (development of consciousness, language acquisition, cultural acquisition, ability to communicate). The personality becomes the object of influence of factors of the macroenvironment and the microenvironment: the whole society as a whole and the immediate environment (family, relatives, friends, team). A personality finds a society at one or another stage of its development, economic and cultural, with a certain social structure, lifestyle, education system - all this affects the personality through various factors objective order: school, university, mass media, the system of education that has developed in society, etc. The factors subjective order - informal groups, the subculture of these groups, interpersonal communication. The dialectic of the objective and the subjective in personality lies in its selectivity. At a certain stage of development, a person “creates” himself in accordance with the values that he chooses, with the search for an option that would allow him to better fulfill himself. Personality most often creates its own future, its own life. The interweaving of social and individual, objective and subjective is expressed in a simple, well-known concept of " fate».

Personality socialization

Sociology considers the socialization of a personality as a process of assimilation by an individual of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values that allow him to function as a full member of society.

Socialization includes both socially controlled processes associated with a targeted impact on the personality, and spontaneous, spontaneous ones that affect its formation. Objective factors have already been mentioned - this is upbringing, education, culture, etc.

Socialization is a complex process of dialectical interaction between environment and heredity. As a result of socialization, the individual becomes a personality, that is, the bearer of a system of views, assessments, beliefs, and behavioral habits. In contemporary Western sociological and psychological literature, the question of primary socialization has been worked out in detail. The most famous are the socialization theories of Z. Freud, American sociopsychologists C. Cooley, E. Erickson, J. Mead, W. McGuire, and others.

By Z. Freud the socialization of the individual begins with sexual-role socialization. The main role is intended for man by nature, according to Freud. This is the role of a woman or a man. Sexual specialization starts from birth and goes through several stages: oral, when the child learns the skills of sucking and swallowing; anal (1-3 years) - during this period, the child learns the "toilet", elementary self-care, learns to control his body; physical (4-5 years) - during this period, the child satisfies his curiosity, learning the difference between the sexes; latent (from 5 years to adolescence) - here the child's attention is focused on the world around him, the process of intellectual development is fast, sexual development is slowing down; genital - this is the period of puberty, when emotional experiences are especially acute, true maturity is associated with the assimilation of social norms of behavior.

American psychologist Eric Erickson considers socialization as a process of development individuality. He formulates two fundamental ideas of socialization: 1) the personality develops as it is ready to move forward and expand the "radius" of its social roles; 2) society, the social environment can both contribute to this progress and slow it down. He formulates the stages of personality development through conflict, the formation of opposite qualities: trust - distrust (up to 1 year); autonomy and confidence (2-3 years); shame is doubt; initiative - guilt; efficiency - inferiority (these qualities are formed at 6-11 years old); youth (self-affirmation - uncertainty); youth (friendship - love or isolation); middle age (reproduction or self-consumption); old age (integration or loneliness and despair, assessment of the life path as a failure). So, according to Erickson, trust - distrust is formed depending on whether the needs of the child are met, autonomy, confidence, initiative, guilt - on how others contribute to his knowledge of the world around him, stimulate him or constantly pull the child back, tell him: "leave me alone." ”, “Do not ask stupid questions” - in this case, the child latently develops a sense of guilt, insecurity, he becomes lack of initiative.

From point of view J. Meade, "I" is a product of the experience of social interaction (this has already been discussed earlier). Therefore, socialization is a certain type of interaction, game. The first stage of socialization is the preparatory or stage imitations children of the behavior of others. The second stage is the actual game, mastering social roles The child goes through the game in one sequence or another. Third stage - system game stage when the "performance" of social roles is already conscious. Otherwise, these stages can be called "imitation, imitation, learning." Mead considers the existence of two "Selves" to be the basis for understanding between the individual and society: a) spontaneous, internal tendencies inherent in a person; b) socialized "I" - the assimilation of the social positions of others, common to the group, society as a whole.

Behavioral tendencies can be traced here in that Mead considers human behavior as a series of "initiatives" of my "I" and the correction of these initiatives by society.

famous psychologist Jean Piaget considers the intellectual development of the individual as the leading factor of socialization, which he inextricably links with the social environment. According to Piaget's operational concept of intelligence, the functioning and development of the psyche takes place within the framework of adaptation to the environment: the sensorimotor stage, the ability to store images of objects in memory; preoperative stage - children learn to distinguish between the objects themselves and their symbols, for example, they no longer identify a sand house with a real house; stage of specific operations; stage of formal operations (or abstract thinking). The child in the process of socialization assimilates the material that he receives from the outside, and then successively "adapts" (in Piaget this is called accommodation) to specific situations. The highest form of such accommodation is the manifestation of operational structures in an individual, that is, certain systematized objective actions. The development of abstract thinking, according to Piaget, is a measure of intellectual development.

In the broadest sociological aspect, socialization is a phylogenetic process (the formation of a person's generic properties) and ontogenetic (the formation of a specific type of personality). At the same time, the process of specialization is not reduced to the direct interaction of individuals, but includes, in a “removed” form, the totality of social relations. The result of socialization is the development of individuality. Socialization is not a mechanical imposition of a ready-made “social form” on the individual, but the result of his active interaction with this “form”. The process of socialization goes on and continues throughout the conscious life of the individual. Therefore, in sociology there is also the concept resocialization- "the assimilation of new values, roles, skills instead of the old, insufficiently learned or outdated" . Resocialization covers many types of human activity - from the correction of speech defects to professional retraining, the assimilation of new types of activities, adaptation to new social conditions. It should be noted that in addition to socialization and resocialization, there is a process that can be called desocialization- this is the loss by a person of already existing social qualities, skills, properties, most often it is associated with the degradation of the individual or marginalization. In any case, this is "socialization in reverse."

In recent years, in our society there has been a process of growth of "desocialized" layers, people who have lost their former social status, who have fallen morally, physically and intellectually. These are homeless people, prostitutes, alcoholics, drug addicts, some of the unemployed, etc. So the process of socialization inevitably has its costs - defectological schools and desocialized sections of the population.

An important role in the process of socialization is played by the system of "agents" of socialization and indicators of socialization. So, agents of socialization are parents, educators, friends, teachers, mentors. In order for a person to develop correctly and harmoniously, he needs attention, care and love. The lack of parental care is expressed in sociology by the term deprivation. Children who grew up in conditions of deprivation, as a rule, lag behind their peers not only in emotional development, but also in intellectual development, the extreme degree of deprivation is hospitalism, or isolation. In conditions of isolation, children are brought up in orphanages, orphanages, boarding schools. Here they are completely deprived of parental affection and love.

Today, such means or agents of socialization as the mass media and the school are of great importance. Perhaps these two factors are the strongest in terms of intensity and duration of exposure.

As for the indicators of socialization, they are technical and economic indicators, for example, the material and technical base of education, the availability of funds for leisure activities, the availability of material opportunities for certain types of activities, the realization of the needs of the individual.

In conclusion, it must be said that socialization is a process that plays a huge role in the life of both the individual and society. Socialization provides self-renewability social life, and from a personal point of view, it is the realization of a person’s abilities, inclinations, the assimilation of culture.

The primary agent of social interaction and relationships is the individual. At the same time, individual-personal conflicts experienced by a person appear as social ones. Recognizing the leading role of social factors (culture and social institutions, the influence of other people) in the formation of personality, sociologists translate the problem of personality into the plane of sociological analysis.

Such a formulation of the question follows from the need to find a constant value that determines the processes taking place in society. Explaining these processes by the interactions of individuals uniting in social communities to achieve their goals, we get the key to understanding the essence of society.

What is a personality? In order to answer this question, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the concepts of "man", "individual", "personality".

The concept of "man" is used to characterize the universal qualities and abilities inherent in all people. This concept emphasizes the presence in the world of such a special historically developing community as the human race (homo sapiens), humanity, which differs from all other material systems only in its inherent way of life.

"Individual" - a separate person, a single representative of the human race, a specific carrier of all social and psychological traits of humanity: mind, will, needs, interests, etc. The concept of "individual" in this case is used in the meaning of "concrete person". With such a formulation of the question, both the features of the action of various biological factors (age characteristics, gender, temperament) and the differences in the social conditions of human life are not fixed. However, it is impossible to completely ignore the effect of these factors. It is obvious that there are great differences between the life activity of a child and an adult, a person of primitive society and other historical epochs. In order to reflect the specific historical features of human development at various levels of his individual and historical development, along with the concept of "individual", the concept of "personality" is also used. The individual in this case is considered as the starting point for the formation of the personality from the initial state for the onto- and phylogenesis of a person, the personality is the result of the development of the individual, the most complete embodiment of all human qualities.

Personality is the object of study of philosophy, psychology and sociology. Philosophy considers personality from the point of view of its position in the world as a subject of activity, cognition and creativity. Psychology studies personality as a stable integrity of mental processes, properties and relationships: temperament, character, abilities, volitional qualities, etc.

The sociological approach, on the other hand, singles out the socially typical in the personality. "Personality" is a single person as a system of stable qualities, properties realized in social relations, social institutions, culture, more broadly - in social life.

The main problem of the sociological theory of personality is connected with the process of personality formation and development of its needs in close connection with the functioning and development of social communities, the study of the natural connection between the individual and society, the individual and the group, the regulation and self-regulation of the social behavior of the individual.

Thus, for sociology in a person, his social component is interesting. With this approach, nothing human, including temperament, emotions inherent in a given person, does not disappear in his personality. At the same time, in personality they are presented in those manifestations that are significant for social life. An individual becomes a person in the process of mastering social functions and developing self-awareness, i.e. awareness of one's self-identity and originality as a subject of activity and individuality, but precisely as a member of society.

The desire to merge with the social community (to identify with it) and at the same time to the manifestation of creative individuality makes a person a product and subject of social relations, social development.

The formation of personality is carried out in the processes of socialization of individuals and directed education: the development of social norms and functions (social roles) by them through the mastery of diverse types and forms of activity.

Not every person is an individual. Humans are born and become individuals. At the same time, it is wrong to think that a person is only an outstanding person. A person is a person who has self-awareness and value orientations, involvement in social relations and a sense of responsibility for actions, awareness of his individuality and autonomy in relation to the state and society. Therefore, one can speak both of an outstanding personality who embodied bright universal and individual characteristics, and of the personality of a criminal or an alcoholic, a homeless person. An obstacle to being a person for an adult is only irreversible organic damage to the brain.

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTER 1. PERSONALITY AS SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS 8

1.1. Concept of personality 8

1.2. Features of the relationship between the individual and society 13

1.3. Formation and development of personality - a problem of modern psychology and sociology 29

CHAPTER 2. ALTERNATIVE VIEWS ON THE PROCESS

FORMATION OF PERSONALITY. 39

2.1. Role concept of personality

2.2. Psychoanalytic personality theory of S. Freud 42

2.3. Behavioral concept of personality 50

2.4. Cultural and historical concept of personality 54

2.5. Determination of ways to form a new model of personality behavior in modern Russian conditions 58

CONCLUSION 69

BIBLIOGRAPHY 72

APPENDICES 75-76

INTRODUCTION

Since ancient times, man has thought about his nature, and what he is, what place he occupies in the world, what are the limits of his capabilities, whether he is able to become the master of his fate or is doomed to be its blind instrument. Today, the problem of man is in the center of attention of many scientists and forms the basis and subject of interdisciplinary research.

The psychology of personality became an experimental science in the first decades of this century. Its formation is associated with the names of such scientists as A.F. Lazurovsky, G. Allport, R. Cattell and others. However, theoretical research in the field of personality psychology was carried out long before that time, and in the history of relevant research, at least three periods can be distinguished: philosophical and literary, clinical, and actually experimental.

The first one originates from the works of ancient thinkers and continued until the beginning of the 19th century. In the first decades of the 19th century, along with philosophers and writers, psychiatrists became interested in the problems of personality psychology. They were the first to conduct systematic observations of the patient's personality in clinical settings, to study his life history in order to better understand his observed behavior. At the same time, not only professional conclusions were made related to the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness, but also general scientific conclusions about the nature of the human personality. This period is called the clinical period.

In the first decades of the current century, professional psychologists also began to study the personality, who until that time paid attention mainly to the study of cognitive processes in the human state. This period coincided in time with the general crisis of psychological science, one of the reasons for which was the inconsistency of the psychology of that time in explaining holistic behavioral acts.

Experimental studies of personality in Russia were started by A.F. Lazursky, and abroad - by G. Eizenk and R. Kettel.

At the end of the 1930s, an active differentiation of research directions began in personality psychology. As a result, by the second half of the 20th century, many different approaches and theories of personality had developed.

Currently, there is a strong opinion that a person is not born as a person, but becomes. Most psychologists and sociologists agree with this. However, their points of view on what laws the development of the personality is subject to differ significantly. These discrepancies relate to the understanding of the driving forces of development, in particular, the importance of society and various social groups for the development of the individual, the patterns and stages of development, the presence, specifics and role of personality development crises in this process, the possibilities for accelerating development, and other issues.

Each type of theory has its own particular idea of personality development. At the same time, in recent decades, there has been a growing trend towards an integrated, holistic consideration of personality from the standpoint of different theories and approaches.

The problem of personality formation has acquired particular relevance in modern conditions, in particular, in Russia. The success of the economic reforms being carried out in the country requires the solution of a whole range of problems, the key of which is the problem of personality formation.

The collapse of the Soviet system entailed the elimination of valuables not only holding together monolithic, as it seemed until recently, blocks of social development, but also former, albeit to varying degrees, part of the inner world of people called the “Soviet people”. And outwardly, a slight reset of values actually turned into a painful reassessment for the majority of society of what was part of themselves, and caused an active polarization of groups. Some of them verbally adopted new value orientations, essentially remaining in their previous positions, while the other part could not do this either.

Young people entering life, not too connected with the values of the departing, do not have the opportunity to perceive new values, falling into a vacuum, as it were. They are forced to either seek the truth on their own or follow the leader. There are many grounds for a full-scale value self-determination of the current generation, which in the vast majority does not represent which way to go. The deterioration of the social position of young people in general sharpens the features of their socio-psychological portrait.

The current state of Russian society today is characterized as critical, which makes it problematic to preserve the moral health of the nation, to ensure the spiritual security of Russia. Culture is losing the functions of socialization, social consolidation and spiritual and moral self-determination of a person. The value-normative uncertainty has a particularly detrimental effect on the younger generation, which today is most acutely experiencing an identity crisis.

An incorrect understanding of value-oriented activity was a distinctive feature of the scientists of the former USSR who were engaged in research on youth problems. Because they almost always proceeded from the "proper". “over given”, the subject of their study was not a real young man, but a proper ideal, an abstract “communist personality”, devoid of life's contradictions. However, life has shown that the orientation to predetermined ideals divorced from life leads to a dead end. This happened, for example, with the conclusion that "socialist society has succeeded in forming a new man." In this sense, it is necessary to study real, not far-fetched problems.

The process of personality formation is carried out in a very diverse way, both in the course of a targeted impact on a person in the system of education, and under the influence of a wide range of influencing factors (family communication, art, mass media, etc.).

The deformation of socialism in the past decades, the immorality of the social structure of society led to the destruction of such traditional features among the younger generation as romanticism, selflessness, readiness for heroism, maximalism, the desire for truth and the search for an ideal. As a result, selfishness, pragmatism, theft, drunkenness, drug addiction, substance abuse, prostitution, social savagery and other negative phenomena have become widespread.

Alienation in the economic, social and political spheres, distrust in state and political institutions, impotence and corruption of the administrative system caused a sharp aggravation of contradictions between various social groups.

Despite this, young people are mastering a new social space, demonstrating psychological readiness to perceive changes in all spheres of life, developing their own alternative culture, forming new life styles, stereotypes of thinking.

The combination of the above problems determined the relevance of the thesis research, the PURPOSE of which is to identify the main aspects of the problem of personality formation, which were and are in the focus of attention of various scientists, as well as to determine the ways of adapting the personality to modern conditions in Russia.

The purpose of the study predetermined the solution of the following TASKS:

Consider the phenomenon of the individual as a subject and object of social relations, including showing the features of the process of socialization of the individual in modern Russia.

To study some aspects of modern theories of personality.

Determine the conditions for optimizing the socio-cultural integration of the individual and the ways of forming a new model of her behavior.

OBJECT OF RESEARCH - personality in modern conditions.

SUBJECT OF RESEARCH - the study of various approaches to

the problem of personality formation.

Preliminary analysis of theoretical and practical aspects

of the studied issue allowed us to formulate the initial hypothesis, which consists of the following assumptions:

1. Only the creation of special programs that take into account general

regularities of the mechanism of socialization, can affect the effectiveness of the process of personality formation.

2. One of the ways to adapt a person to modern conditions can

be familiarizing it with the values of Russian culture (in Russian society), since in this case there is a revival of the spiritual and moral principle.

The theoretical basis for the study of socio-psychological and

culturological aspects of the problem of personality formation were the works of P. Berger, . T. Luhmann, W. Durkheim, L. G. Ionin, P. Monson, Z. Freud, E. Fromm, J. Mead and other scientists.

CHAPTER 1. PERSONALITY AS SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

1.1. The concept of personality

Sociologists and psychologists answer the question of what a personality is in different ways, and the complexity of the phenomenon of personality itself is manifested in the variety of their answers, and partly in the divergence of opinions on this matter. The word personality (“personality”) in English comes from the Latin “persona”. Originally, this word referred to the masks worn by actors during a theatrical performance in ancient Greek drama. In fact, this term originally indicated a comic or tragic figure in a theatrical action. Thus, from the very beginning, the concept of “personality” included an external, superficial social image that an individual takes on when he plays certain life roles - a kind of “mask”, a public face addressed to others. To get an idea of the variety of meanings of the concept of personality in sociology and psychology, let us turn to the views of some recognized theorists in this field. For example, Carl Rogers described the person in terms of the self: as an organized, long-term, subjectively perceived entity that is at the very core of our experiences. Gordon Allport defined personality as what an individual really is - an internal "something" that determines the nature of a person's interaction with the world. And in the understanding of Erik Erickson, an individual goes through a series of psychosocial crises during his life and his personality appears as a function of the results of the crisis. George Kelly considered personality as a unique way of understanding life experience inherent in each individual. A completely different concept was proposed by Raymond Cattell, in whose opinion, the core of the personality structure is formed by sixteen initial features. Finally, Albert Bandura considered personality as a complex pattern of continuous mutual influence of the individual, behavior and situation. Such a clear dissimilarity of the above concepts unambiguously shows that the content of personality from the standpoint of different theoretical ideas is much more multifaceted than that presented in the original concept of the “external social image” Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theory of personality. SPb. - Peter - 1997, p.22-23. Volume 1., M.- Veche-Ast, 1999.. “Personality”, therefore, in this case is derived from behavior, i.e. someone's "personality" is considered to be the cause of his/her behavior. To this we can add that many definitions of personality emphasize that personal qualities do not include the psychological qualities of a person that characterize his cognitive processes or individual style of activity, with the exception of those that are manifested in relations with people, in society.

In sociology, personality is defined as:

The systemic quality of an individual, determined by his involvement in social relations and manifested in joint activities and communication;

The subject of social relations and conscious activity.

The concept of “personality” shows how each person individually reflects socially significant features and manifests his essence as the totality of all social relations.

1.2. Features of the relationship between the individual and society

Society in sociology is understood as an association of people, characterized by:

a) the commonality of the territory of their residence, which usually coincides with state borders and serves as the space within which relationships and interactions between members of a given society are formed and developed;

b) integrity and sustainability;

c) self-reproduction, self-sufficiency, self-regulation;

d) such a level of development of culture, which finds its expression in the development of a system of norms and values that underlie social tiesSociology. Educational settlement (Under the editorship of E.V. Tadevosyan.-M .: 3 knowledge, 1995, p. 144. .

By and large, recognizing that society is a product of the interaction of people, sociologists, both in the past and in our days, often gave different answers to the question of what serves as the fundamental basis for uniting people in society.

There have been and still are many attempts to systematize sociological views on resolving the issue of the relationship between the individual and society. One of the most fruitful options for classifying modern sociological trends was proposed by the Swedish sociologist P. Monson Monson P. Modern Western sociology. - St. Petersburg, 1992. P. 24. He identified four main approaches.

The first approach and the sociological tradition that follows from it proceed from the primacy of society in relation to the individual and focus their attention on the study of patterns of a “higher” order, leaving the sphere of subjective motives and meanings in the shade. Society is understood as a system that rises above individuals and cannot be explained by their thoughts and actions. The logic of reasoning with such a position is approximately as follows: the whole is not reduced to the sum of its parts; individuals come and go, are born and die, but society continues to exist. This tradition originates in the sociological concept of Durkheim and even earlier in the views of Comte. Of the modern trends, it primarily includes the school of structural-functional analysis (T. Parsons) and the theory of conflict (L. Koser, R. Dahrendorf).

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) is considered the founder of positivist sociology. Comte's main work, A Course in Positive Philosophy, was published in 6 volumes in 1830-1842. The scientist's work coincided with a period of profound social changes, which he perceived as a general moral, intellectual and social crisis. He saw the reasons for this crisis in the destruction of the traditional institutions of society, in the absence of a system of beliefs and attitudes that would meet new social needs and could become the ideological basis for future social transformations. The transition of society to a new state cannot occur, according to Comte, without the active participation of a person, his strong-willed and creative efforts. O.Kont believed in the limitless possibilities of reason as the driving force of history, in a “positive” science that should replace religion and become the main organizing force of society History of Sociology: Proc. settlement (Under the general editorship of A.N. Elsukov and others ..-Mn .: Higher school, 1997, p. 35 ..

In the theoretical understanding of society by E. Durkheim (1858-1917), two main trends can be traced: naturalism and social realism. The first is rooted in the understanding of society and its laws by analogy with nature. The second involves the understanding of society as a reality of a special kind, different from all other types. Sociologism is the main methodological setting of this researcher.

The main idea that inspired Durkheim was the idea of social solidarity, the desire to find an answer to the question of what bonds unite people in society. His fundamental thesis was that that the division of labor, by which he understood professional specialization, is increasingly fulfilling the integrating role previously played by the common consciousness. The division of labor causes individual differences in accordance with the professional role. Everyone becomes an individual. The consciousness that everyone is connected by a single system of relations created by the division of labor evokes feelings of dependence on each other, solidarity, connection with society. At the same time, collective consciousness takes on new forms and changes its content. It decreases in volume and the degree of certainty also decreases, in terms of content it turns into a secular, rationalistic, individual-oriented Durkheim E. On the division of social labor: Method of sociology.-M..1991, p.122..

Any modern society dominated by organic solidarity is fraught with the danger of division and anomaly. Durkheim. Naturally, I saw the presence of social problems and conflicts. However, he considered them simply a deviation from the norm, caused by insufficient regulation of relations between the main classes of society. In this regard, the researcher developed the idea of creating professional corporations as new bodies of social solidarity. They should, according to his plan, perform a wide range of social functions - from production to moral and cultural ones, develop and implement new forms that will regulate relations between people and contribute to the development of personality Gromov I.A., Matskevich A. .Yu., Semenov V.A. Western theoretical sociology. - SPb., 1996, p. 69 ..

The works of T. Parsons (1902-1979) had a great influence on the development of modern sociological theory. Such concepts as "social system" and "society" in Parsons are interconnected, but not reducible to each other. He believes that society is a special type of social system: it is a social system that has reached the highest level of self-sufficiency in relation to its environment. Parsons names five external environments of the social system - “Ultimate reality”, “Cultural system”, “Personality system”, “Organism” and “Physical-organic environment” Gromov I.A., Matskevich A.Yu., Semenov V. BUT. Western theoretical sociology. - St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 171.

According to Parsons, the main features of this system are the orderliness of relations between individuals and the collective existence of people. Therefore, as an ordered system, the societal community contains values and differentiated and specialized norms and rules, the presence of which implies a cultural reference that contributes to their legitimation.

The relationship of the social system to the personality system, Parsons believes, is radically different from its relationship to the culture system, since the personality (like the organism and the physical-organic environment) is located “below” the social system in the cybernetic hierarchy. The social system is only one side of human behavior. the other side is the vital activity of the human organism. Functional requirements put forward by individuals, organisms and the physical-organic environment constitute a complex system of measurements of the actual organization and existence of social systems Gromov I.A., Matskevich A.Yu., Semenov V.A. Western theoretical sociology. - SPb., 1996, p. 69 ..

The main functional problem of the relationship of the social system to the personality system is the problem of socialization in the theory of T. Parsons. Socialization is defined by him as a set of processes by which people become members of the societal community system and establish a certain social status. The complex relationship between the individual and the social system includes, on the one hand, the establishment and development of adequate motivation for taking part in socially controlled patterns of action, and on the other hand, adequate satisfaction and encouragement of participants in such action. Thus, the primary functional need of the social system in relation to the personality of its members is the motivation for participation in the social system, which implies compliance with the requirements of the normative order. Parsons distinguishes three aspects of this functional need: first, the most general obligations arising from the adoption of central value patterns, directly related to religious orientation; secondly, the sublevel of personality that is formed in the process of early socialization, associated with the erotic complex and the motivational importance of kinship and other intimate relationships; thirdly, direct instrumental and non-instrumental actions of the individual (“services”), varying in purpose and situation.

Despite the importance of all aspects of functional need, the relationship between the personality system and the social system is structured through “services”, which are the main elements in the formation of the political subsystem of the social system Ibid.p.173 ..

Many sociologists quite rightly raised the question that, along with order in society, there is also disorder (theories of social conflict): stability, stability harmony is accompanied by conflict, the struggle of opposing social groups, organizations, individuals.

The main arguments put forward against Parsons' thesis about stability as an attribute of society were the following: I) a group of people is engaged in the distribution of means of life. It opposes the whole society. Therefore conflict is inevitable; 2) political power protects the existing economic order of distribution of the social product. She, too, opposes society. Therefore, the conflict between it and the masses of the people is objectively conditioned; 3) in any society, the initial chain operates: money - power - values - ritual. It is the first to the last component, everywhere there is a clash of interests of opposing social groups. Consequently, conflicts are generated by the entire system of social relations; 4) in any society there is coercion of some by others, because only some own the means of production. Thus, social conflict is a product of economic relations.

The study of the confrontation between a person, as an integral personality, and society, as a universal social system, can be found in the works of N. Luhmann (1927-1998). This is a sociologist who began to write about “world society”: “World society is not constituted by virtue of the fact that more and more people, despite their spatial distance, enter into elementary contacts between those present. This only adds to the fact. that in each interaction some “and so on” of other contacts of partners is constituted, and the possibilities (of these contacts) reach further to the universal intertwining and include them in the regulation of interactions” Theory of society. Collection (Translated from German, English) Intro. Art. comp. And common. Ed. A.F. Filippov. - M.: “KANON-press-C”, “Kuchkovo Pole”, 1999, p.14. in the systematization of the interaction between the individual and society proposed by Monson), but also criticized them, primarily because these theorists, as it seemed to him, underestimate the scale of the “decentralized and conjugated worldwide communication of the “information society”” Ibid., p.14 -fifteen..

L.Kozer (b.1913), for example, sought to “complete”, “improve” the theory of structural-functional analysis. He tried to prove that collisions are a product of the internal life of society, the order of things existing in it, the very relations between individuals and groups. According to Coser, social conflict is an essential attribute of social relations. In his presentation, any social system presupposes a certain distribution of power, wealth and status positions among individuals and social groups History of Sociology // Ed. who are not challenged, incapable of creative response. The most effective means of containing the conflict is to find out the relative strength of the conflicting parties, the strength of the opponents must be assessed before the onset of the conflict, antagonistic interests can be settled in a conflict-free manner.

The essence of social conflict in the theory of R. Dahrendorf (b. 1929) is the antagonism of power and resistance. He believed that power always implies anarchy and therefore resistance. The dialectic of power and resistance is the driving force of history. Power breeds conflict. The researcher sees the cause of the conflict in the inequality of the position occupied by people. Dahrendorf created a typology of conflicts in relation to power within social groups, between groups, at the level of the whole society and conflicts between countries. p.214..

So, the first approach and the sociological tradition that follows from it proceed from the dominant position of society in relation to the individual and focus their attention on studying the laws of a “high” order, leaving the sphere of subjective, personal motives and meanings in the shade. Society is understood as a system that rises above individuals and cannot be explained by their thoughts and actions. O. Comte believed in the unlimited possibilities of reason as the driving force of history, in “positive” science, but he believed that this was just the organizing force of society, Durkheim believed that professional specialization more and more fulfills that integrating role . According to Parsons, the “System of Personality” is a component of the social system, and society is a social system that has reached the highest level of self-sufficiency in relation to its environment. The personality (like the organism and the physical-organic environment) is located “below” the social system in the cybernetic hierarchy. The understanding of society in all these views is a reality of a special kind, distinct from all other kinds.

The second approach proposed by Monson to address the issue of the relationship between the individual and society shifts the focus of its attention towards the individual, arguing that without studying the inner world of a person, his motives, it is impossible to create an explanatory sociological theory. This tradition is associated with the name of the German sociologist M.Weber, and among modern representatives one can name such trends as symbolic interactionism (G.Blumer), phenomenology (A.Schutz, N.Luckmann) and ethnomethodology (G.Garfinkel, A.Sikurel ), social dramaturgy by I. Hoffmann.

M. Weber (1864-1920) - the founder of "understanding" sociology and the theory of social action. The main idea of Weberian sociology was the substantiation of the possibility of the most rational behavior, manifested in all spheres of human relationships. He rejected such concepts as “society”, “people”, “humanity”, “collective”, etc. as the subject of sociological knowledge. The subject of a sociologist's research can only be an individual, since it is he who has consciousness, motivation for his actions and rational behavior Sociology. Textbook / / General ed. E.V. Tadevosyan, . - M., Knowledge, 1995, p.63..

D. G. Mead (1863-1931) and his book “Mind, I and Society” are considered to be the founder of the theoretical constructions of symbolic interactionism.

In the most clear and concise form, the main assumptions of the theory of symbolic interactionism are set out in the work of G. Blumer (1900-1987) “Symbolic interactionism: “Perspectives and method” Gromov I.A., Matskevich A. Yu., Semenov V.A. Western theoretical sociology. p.205.:

Human activity is carried out in relation to objects on the basis of the values that they attach to them.

Meanings themselves are the product of social interaction between individuals.

Meanings are changed and applied through interpretation, a process used by each individual in relation to the signs (symbols) surrounding him.

Here we observe the fundamental role of the activity of the individual, the personality, the values that a person attaches to the environment.

One of the brightest representatives of the phenomenological approach in sociology is A. Schutz. Schutz reflected his main views in the fundamental work “Phenomenology of the Social World” Schutz A. Formation of the concept and theory in the social sciences // American sociological thought. - M.: MGU, 1994.

3 Berger P., Luckmann T. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise on the Sociology of Knowledge. -M.: Medium, 1995 .. The scientist believed that the world around us is a product of our consciousness, in other words, we can say that he believed that there is only that (for a person) that is consciously and “translated” into signs (symbols) . Schutz describes the transition from the individual to society as follows. At a certain stage of development, the individual "store of knowledge" must be "shared" with other people. The combination of different worlds is carried out on the basis of “self-evident concepts”, creating what Schutz calls the “life world”. It is likely that Schutz identifies the "life world" with the concept of "society". That is, the “individual reserves of knowledge” that characterize a person, combined, form the substance “society”.

An attempt to build a phenomenological theory of society is presented in the work of P. Berger (b. 1929), co-authored with T. Lukmann (b. 1927). "For granted" meanings are considered by scientists as the basis of social organization, but the authors pay more attention to meanings that are developed jointly and stand, as it were, "above the individual." Society turns out to be the social environment of the individual, which he himself creates, introducing into it certain “real” values and meanings, which he subsequently adheres to. Here the individual (the basis of personality development in the modern view) turns out to be the creator of society, i.e. in this case, priority in interaction is given to him.

The founder of the ethnomethodological school is G. Garfinkel (b. 1917). He was interested in how a rationally correct description of practical everyday social interactions is possible. What is an individual, Garfinkel formulates in the spirit of the approach of T. Parsons - “a member of the team”. Mutual understanding between indi-species is not reduced to formal rules for registering phenomena that serve to predict the future behavior of each other. It is a kind of agreement that serves to normalize everything that social behavior can turn out to be in practice.

Social interaction, according to Garfinkel. can be correctly described by analogy with the game. From this point of view, it becomes possible to identify as a set of basic rules that those. those who seek to obey them are considered the rules of normal interaction. and ways of comprehending specific social situations with the help of these rules by their participants History of Sociology // Under the general editorship. A.N. Elsukova .. - Minsk: Higher. school, 1997. pp. 246-248.

I. Goffman (1922-1982) made a significant contribution to modern sociology through his studies of social interactions, contacts, gatherings and small groups, reflected in such publications as "Behavior in Public Places", "Ritual of Interactions" and "Relations in Public" . He also did role analysis ("Contacts"). Most of all, he was interested in the components of fleeting, random and short-term contacts, in other words, the sociology of everyday life. In order to search for a certain orderliness of such contacts, Hoffmann, in analyzing the processes of staging social meetings in his work "Representation of the Self in Everyday Life", used an analogy with drama ("dramatic approach"). All aspects of life - from deeply personal to public, he tried to describe in theatrical terms. The “performance” is constantly directed, as if a person were simultaneously a producer hiring himself for a role, an actor performing it, and a director supervising the performance. That is, the interaction of the individual and society occurs on the basis of the role that the person (personality) performs.

So, the second approach proposed by Monson to address the issue of the relationship between the individual and society shifts the focus of its attention towards the individual. According to this tradition, it turns out that without studying the inner world of a person, his motives, it is impossible to create an explanatory sociological theory. Weber believed that only an individual can be the subject of a sociologist's research, since it is he who has consciousness, motivation for his actions and rational behavior. A. Schutz saw the fundamental role of consciousness in everything. P. Berger and T. Luckmann wrote that society turns out to be the social environment of the individual, which he himself creates, introducing into it certain “true” values and meanings, which he subsequently adheres to. Other sociologists, “supporters” of this tradition, considered symbols (signs) that a person operates as the basis in the interaction between society and the individual.

Monson focuses on studying the very mechanism of the process of interaction between society and the individual, taking a kind of “middle” position between the approaches that we described above. One of the founders of this tradition was P. Sorokin, and one of the modern sociological concepts is the theory of action, or the theory of exchange (J. Homans).

P.Sorokin (1889-1968) is the author of such famous books. as "The System of Sociology" (1920), "Social Mobility" (1927). “Modern Sociological Theories” (1928), “Social and Cultural Dynamics” (1937-1941), “Society, Culture and Personality” (1947) and many others.

Sorokin formulated the initial thesis that social behavior is based on psychophysical mechanisms; the subjective aspects of behavior are "variable" quantities. All people, according to Sorokin, enter into a system of social relationships under the influence of a whole range of factors: unconscious (reflexes), bioconscious (hunger, thirst, sexual desire, etc.) and socioconscious (meanings, norms, values) regulators . Unlike random and temporary aggregates (like a crowd), characterized by the absence of clear connections between people, only a society is able to produce meanings, norms, values that exist, as it were, inside the socio-conscious “ego” - the members constituting the society. Therefore, any society can only be assessed through the prism of its inherent system of meanings, norms and values. This system is a simultaneous cultural quality Johnston B.V. Pitrim Sorokin and sociocultural trends of our time // Sociological research. - 1999, - No. 6, S. 67 ..

Hidden in socio-conscious individuals and societies, cultural qualities are found in all the achievements of human civilization, remaining also in discrete periods of cultural history (wars, revolutions, etc.).

So, according to Sorokin, all people enter into a system of social relationships under the influence of a whole complex of factors: unconscious and socioconscious regulators. Those. relationships occur due to socio-conscious, for example, regulators, and regulators, in turn, arise due to the presence of individuals (personalities). Hidden in socio-conscious individuals and societies, cultural qualities are found in all the achievements of human civilization.

D.K. Homans (born 1910) characterized the task of his own sociology as follows: “Although sociologists will make many empirical discoveries, the central intellectual problem of sociology is not analytical; this is the problem of discovering new fundamental propositions. I think the main points are already open, and they are psychological. This problem is rather synthetic, i.e. the problem of showing how the behavior of many people in accordance with psychological positions is intertwined to form and maintain relatively stable social structures”. Some problems of modern foreign sociology: Critical analysis. Book 2.-M., 1979, p.156. According to Homans, institutions and human society as a whole are made up only of human actions, they can therefore be analyzed in terms of individual actions and can be explained on the basis of the principles of individual behavior.

As Homans noted, “The secret of social exchange between people is to give the other person from your behavior what seems to him more valuable than you, and to receive from him what is more valuable to you than to him. ”History of bourgeois sociology of the first half of the 20th century, - M., 1979.p.70 ..

So, the third approach outlined by Monson to the solution of the question of the relationship between the individual and society can be called combining the first two approaches. None of these concepts is dominant over the other; moreover, they are interconnected: one cannot exist without the other. All people, according to Sorokin, enter into a system of social relationships under the influence of a whole range of factors: unconscious and socioconscious regulators. Hidden in socio-conscious individuals and societies, cultural qualities are found in all the achievements of human civilization. Homans believes that people enter into a system of social relationships based on social exchange among themselves. Therefore, one cannot say that society dominates the individual, or, on the contrary, that the individual is a priority over society.

Another approach outlined by Monson is the Marxist one. Marxist sociology - Approaches in academic sociology that use Marxism. Marxism - a general set of mainly theoretical works that claim to develop, correct or revise the works of Marx (1818-1883) by practitioners who identify themselves with his followers Jerry D. and others. A large explanatory sociological dictionary. Volume 1., M. - Veche-Ast, 1999., p. 394, 396.. The entire intellectual project of Marx contained several goals, one of which was “to understand and explain the position of man as he saw him in capitalist society” Ibid. P.390. This goal was not strictly sociological (which Marx did not claim), but his thought had a profound impact on the development of sociology, providing a starting point for extensive research, stimulating a productive critical reaction from non-Marxist scientists. In essence, K. Marx believed that the position of man under capitalism was characterized by alienation, that is, the isolation of people from their world, products, comrades and themselves. His theory is based on the following ideas: the economy has a primary influence on the formation and development of social structures and on the ideas that people have about themselves, as well as about their society. According to Marx, economic relations constitute the basis of society, which has a superstructure of non-economic institutions. The nature and possibilities of the latter are essentially determined by the basis.

In terms of the type of explanation of social phenomena, this approach is similar to the first approach. However, the fundamental difference is that in line with the Marxist tradition, the active intervention of sociology in the transformation and change of the surrounding world is supposed, while other traditions consider the role of sociology rather as a recommendation. The main role in social development was assigned by Marx to production relations, and non-economic institutions - the state, religion, etc. - play only a relatively autonomous role in social development. The views of K. Marx are derived by Monson into a separate model of relations between the individual and society, probably due to this economic approach. The concept of “personality” was not considered by Marx at all, but was implied in the meanings of “a person in a capitalist society”, “human consciousness”. According to Marx, consciousness reflected the material conditions of existence in which the classes (of which society consists) were located. So, K. Marx considered society (classes, economic situation) to be the dominant in the concepts of “personality” and “society”.

The focus of sociology has always been and continues to be the problems of interaction between the individual and society. This is one of the main questions in sociology, because this or that understanding of the essence of the individual and society, their organization, life activity, sources and ways of development depends on its solution. Sociologists have argued a lot about the priority of the individual and society. Probably, its real solution is not in isolation, and even more so not in opposing one to the other, but in organizing their close and harmonious interaction. One thing is clear, that there is no and cannot be the improvement of society outside the free and all-round development of the individual, just as there is not and cannot be the free and all-round development of the individual outside and independently of a truly civilized society.

Our analysis of various schools, directions and currents of sociological theory does not claim to be an exhaustive presentation of the entire theoretical heritage of Western sociologists, but highlights only the key points that form the basis of scientific research on the problem of "personality - society".

1.3. Formation and development of personality - a problem of modern psychology and sociology

The problem of the individual, the relationship between the individual and society belongs to the most interesting and important topics in sociology. However, not only in sociology, but also in philosophy, psychology, social psychology and many other disciplines.

Studying, in particular, the history of sociology leads to the conclusion that sociological thought is aimed at finding answers to two fundamental questions:

1) what is society (what makes society a stable whole; how is social order possible)?

2) what is the nature of the relationship between society as an ordered structure, on the one hand, and the individuals acting in it, on the other? Kazarinova N.V. Filatova O. G. Khrenov A. E. Sociology: Textbook. - M., 2000, S. 10. And the individual, as we have already noted, is considered as the starting point for the formation of the personality from the initial state, the personality is the result of the development of the individual, the most complete embodiment of all human qualities. From this it follows that the problem of personality was and is to this day an urgent problem.

First of all, we note that the personality as an object of social relations is considered in sociology in the context of two interrelated processes - socialization and identification. Under socialization, it is customary to understand the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and values necessary for his successful functioning in a given society. Identification - copying the behavior of another, close to a passionate desire to resemble this person as much as possible (the concept owes much to Freud's understanding of the solution of the Oedipus complex through identification with a parent of the same sex). Socialization covers all the processes of initiation to culture, training and education, with the help of which a person acquires a social nature and the ability to participate in social life. The entire environment of the individual takes part in the process of socialization: family, neighbors, peers in a children's institution, school, mass media, etc. Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology. - M., 1997, p.76. It is in the process of socialization that personality is formed.

One of the first elements of the child's socialization was singled out by the founder of the psychoanalytic theory of personality Z. Freud (1856-1939). According to Freud, personality includes three elements: "id" - a source of energy, stimulated by the desire for pleasure; "ego" - exercising control of the personality, based on the principle of reality, and "superego", or moral evaluative element. Socialization is presented to Freud as a process of "deployment"

innate properties of a person, as a result of which the formation of these three components of personality occurs.

Many psychologists and sociologists emphasize that the process of socialization continues throughout a person's life, and argue that the socialization of adults differs from the socialization of children. If the socialization of adults changes external behavior, then the socialization of children and adolescents forms value orientations.

The arsenal of ways and means of socialization at the stage of childhood is small, although we are talking about an active period. This is an imitation, that is, the conscious desire of the child to copy a certain model of behavior; identification as a way for children to assimilate parental behavior, social attitudes and values as their own.

At the stage of childhood, the number of agents of socialization is constantly growing. the program and the content of their activities are changing significantly in the direction of complication.

At the youthful stage (13-19 years old) - at this “difficult”, “difficult”, “transitional” period of their life - adolescents and young people acquire much broader knowledge, complete the formation of the foundation of their personality. During this period, parallel systems of values and views of the world may arise, which are carried by different agents of socialization: parents, school, peers, etc.

At the stage of maturity, the flourishing of the activity of the human personality, which begins in each in his own way, depending on the circumstances of his personal life and the environment, an economic one is acquired. social and moral-psychological independence of the individual, his political maturity.

The main thing at this stage of socialization is the acquisition and development of social statuses and social roles, their active implementation. In the process of socialization in adulthood, breakdowns and crises are possible, which is usually associated with serious changes in a person's life. Then there may be a need for resocialization, that is, a need for the assimilation of new knowledge, values, roles, skills instead of the previous ones. For "transitional societies", which is currently Russia, is characterized mainly by the need for resocialization. At the same time, the need for resocialization may arise in an individual at every stage of life, regardless of the social structure.

The process of socialization ends at the stage of old age, which is often quite difficult for people, especially lonely ones.

The socialization of the individual occurs mainly on the basis of group experience. It is as a result of the social interaction of people in small and large social groups that a person assimilates the knowledge and experience accumulated by society, the values and norms developed by him. This is the foundation of the image of any normal person and, at the same time, the unity and value of the social group and the whole society. However, one cannot discount the role of individual experience in the process of socialization, which determines the originality and uniqueness of each individual.

Social life is complex and diverse in the sense that it includes not only a stable, calm, correct, normal course, but also deviations from it. especially if we consider the features of the life of an individual in a “crisis” society. This finds its expression in the deviant (deviant) behavior of people and the anomie of society.

The sociological explanation of deviation takes into account primarily social and cultural factors. The essence of this explanation can be found in detail in the works of E. Durkheim and R. Merton. Researchers identify two main ideas: “social disorganization” refers to the state of society when cultural values, norms and social relationships are absent, weaken or contradict each other (E. Durkheim); the cause of deviation is the gap between the cultural goals of society and the socially approved means of achieving them (R. Merton). These provisions are considered generally accepted in sociology today. Sociology./Under the general. ed. E.V.Tadevosyan.p.180-181.

The process of socialization at each historical stage has its own specifics. In the process of evolution of society, ideas about society itself and the position of the individual in it change accordingly. Many contemporary sociologists talk about this. Today, most of them state the end of faith in progress. The premise of positive development is replaced by structural analysis, primarily by the analysis of social differentiation, organizational dependencies, and role structures. We find such an approach in N. Luhmann's Theory of Society. Collection //Under the total. ed. A.F. Filippova. - M.: “KANON-press-C”, “Kuchkovo Pole”, 1999, p.198. century. This was initiated by a dispute between supporters of the ideas about the predominantly material (economic) and predominantly spiritual (cultural) determination of society. At the same time, the position of the individual in society becomes the central problem, the appeal to which makes it possible to judge society skeptically and no longer evaluate it unconditionally as progressive. Concepts such as “socialization” and “role” indicate the need for a theoretical mediation of “individual” and “society”. The difference between the “individual” and “society” turns out, along with the historical difference, to be the basis for (constructing) theories Ibid..

Thus, the approaches of sociologists to the explanation of the concept of society, the individual in society, and social processes are radically changing.

R.Park is already thinking from “human ecology”, which also indicates a rethinking of the interconnected system “society-human”.

Park writes that in human communities, as in communities of plants and animals, the principle of domination operates. The so-called natural or functional areas of the urban community - for example, the slums, the apartment building district, the central shopping arcade and the central banking district - each of these districts owes its existence directly to the factor of domination, and indirectly to competition. Park R. Human Ecology / /Theory of society. Collection (Under the general editorship of A.F. Filippov, p. 391 ..

According to the scientist, the cultural community develops in a way similar to the biotic community, however, it is somewhat more complicated. Inventions, as well as sudden catastrophic changes, seem to be more important for the emergence of cyclical changes in a cultural community than in a biotic one. But the very principle of the appearance of changes is essentially the same.

In human societies, unlike animal communities, competition and individual freedom are limited by custom and consensus at every level beyond the biotic.

Human society is everywhere an organization of control. Its function is to organize, integrate and direct the efforts of its constituent individuals. As society develops, control is more and more extended and intensified, the free commercial activity of individuals is limited, if not by law, then by mores. There. S. 399.

It turns out that progress has contributed to the tightening of the control functions of society. Although in Russia, due to objective reasons, this fact is not yet recognized.

Russia is going through social, demographic, ecological, spiritual and moral crises. Vertical managerial ties, economic and interpersonal relationships are disintegrating. The standard of living is falling, there is a sharp stratification of society, the traditional institutions of socialization and cultural continuity are deformed, the basic spiritual and moral foundations of social life are destroyed. The growth of lack of spirituality entails internal instability.

The social sphere is characterized by a crisis in the systems of education, upbringing, social security, health care, etc., mass unemployment, the emergence of millions of refugees, the homeless, rampant crime, alcoholism, drug addiction and prostitution, and above all at the expense of young people.

Of all the defects in socialization, the most socially dangerous are the defects in socialization in the family.

In Russian society, at present, there is actually no socially approved model of social behavior. This position was largely promoted as a weakness of modern sociological theory in general by Terborn G. Belonging to culture, location in the structure and human action: an explanation in sociology and social science / / Theory of society (Under the general editorship of A. F.Filippova, p.73., and Russian sociological theory, in particular.This is a very important point and we especially emphasize its importance.

In the type of theorizing now prevailing in general sociology, the desire to explain is completely absent or considered secondary. There is very little interest in questions like: “Why do these people act this way? Why is the given social order changing in this way?” To explain something is to give a plausible justification for why, in a given situation, in which there was at least one other possibility, it was this something that actualized Therborn G. Belonging to a culture, location in the structure and human action: an explanation in sociology and social science//Theory of society (Under the general editorship of A.F. Filippov S.75 ..

Considering the problem of transformations in Russia and the crisis of socialization, one can ask a question; “Why did market transformations start from above?”, “Who benefits from instability in the social sphere?” etc.

Summing up, we will carry out at least an approximate assessment of the described processes. At the same time, it is important to determine what impact they have on the process of shaping the personality of a child, then a young person, and then the next generation, in relation to which they will be fathers and mothers, in what relation they will be with those laws on which the process of personality formation is carried out.

2. The most significant will be the damage. inflicted on the value world of those young people who are characterized by weakened ties with the family, rather significant delays in social development, and low success in the education system.

3. The presence of the problem of identification and socio-cultural integration of young people.

4. We should expect an increase in the impact on the value structures of young people of the national factor.

5. In the event of further unfavorable development of the country's economy, economic, political and nationalistic factors may "merge" with a pronounced prototalitarian and anti-Caucasian orientation.

6. The economic factor has a significant impact on value structures: the lower the level of material support, the higher the requirements for a “strong hand”, and, conversely, with its increase, the higher the value of freedom.

It is necessary that society strictly observe the laws of personality development.

Until post-industrial values are formed in Russia at the ideological, behavioral and material level, social anomie will be present and reproduced en masse in society. The roots of the social pathology that aggravates the problem of the crisis ultimately go back to the absence of a voluntarily recognized system of values, on the basis of which a mechanism of effective social control is created in countries that have transitioned or are transitioning to post-industrialism.

So, the formation and development of personality is a very urgent problem of modern sociology (in particular, for solving the problems of domestic sociology). This is due to the fact that for economic, political, social reasons, Russia is currently experiencing a crisis of socialization. And socialization is an aspect of the formation and development of personality. To resolve this crisis in practice, a solid theoretical scientific base (in sociology) is needed.

In addition, the study of personality is an attempt to answer the fundamental question of sociology, which is to study the nature of the interaction between society and the individual (the individual is the basis of personality development).

CHAPTER 2. ALTERNATIVE VIEWS ON THE PROCESS OF PERSONALITY FORMATION

2.1. Role concept of personality

The processes taking place in our society cannot be properly assessed and understood without studying the vast scientific heritage in the field of personality sociology,

One of the most famous sociological theories of personality is the role concept that arose in American social psychology in the 30s of the XX century and became widespread in various sociological trends, especially in structural-functional analysis.

J. Mead is considered the founder of the role concept of personality. Above, we have already spoken about this researcher as the founder of the theoretical constructions of symbolic interactionism. Mead's ideas, which had not been popular for many years, received a wide response in the 80s due to the realization of the fact that the scientist was able to get ahead of his time by posing and solving problems that were formulated in sociology only at the end of the 20th century. Today, Mead is perceived as a classic, as a figure who largely determined the content of the current stage in the development of foreign sociology.

What is the place of Mead's theoretical system in sociology? What is the role of his ideas for modern sociology? Of course, we cannot exhaustively consider these issues in this section, but we will try to outline some of the main features of Mead's socio-psychological theory, to reveal its main theoretical and ideological orientation.

Central to Mead's social psychology is the concept of interindividual interaction. The totality of interaction processes, according to Mead, constitutes society and the social individual. Analysis of the process of formation of individual consciousness in the course of interaction Mead begins with the concept of "gesture". Gesture as an individual action serves as the initial phase of interaction and acts as a stimulus to which other participants respond. A gesture presupposes the presence of a certain referent, an “idea”, correlation with some elements of the individual's experience and evokes the same response in the mind of the person making the gesture as in the mind of the perceiver. The most important of the gesture-symbols is, according to Mead, the word (“voice gesture”). Language is defined as a constitutive factor of consciousness. Ioni L.G. Understanding sociology. Historical and critical analysis. - M .: Nauka, 1979, pp. 68-69.

In any culture, there is always some meaning associated with gesture and language. The scientist saw this meaning in “practical consequences”, i.e. those reactions that cause these symbols. “Meaning,” Mead noted, “is not a state of consciousness ... The meaning of a gesture is equal to the response of a given individual to a gesture of another in a certain act of social action, this response also serves as the basis for the emergence of another gesture or new content for a new gesture. Therefore, in this case, the gesture is the beginning of a social act that generates a series of communications” Antonovich I,I. US Sociology: Problems and Searches for Solutions.-Mn., 1976..

One of the most important parts of Mead's sociological teaching was his concept of "interindividual interaction", which asserted that communication between people and an individual's attitudes to objects (to "others" and to himself) are generated and maintained by a certain set of social factors. The way an individual perceives the surrounding social reality is determined by his experience of communicating with others, especially by his own ability to perceive the world and himself as others see this world and as it is expressed by the corresponding symbols (gestures or words). In this regard, the behavior of an individual in a group, according to Mead, is the result of the acceptance by this individual of the attitudes of others in relation to himself and the subsequent crystallization of all these particular attitudes into a single attitude or point of view, which can be called the attitude of the “generalized other”.

This process of accepting the role of other people (“the generalized other”) is especially prominent in the course of the formation of the human “I”, the origin and structure of which, according to Mead, reflect the unity and structure of the social process.

Thus, the stages of accepting the role of the other, others, the “generalized other” are the stages of transformation of a physiological organism into a reflexive social self. The main characteristic of the Self is the ability to become an object for oneself, which distinguishes it from inanimate objects and living organisms. The richness and originality of the reactions, modes of action, symbolic contents inherent in one or another individual Self depends on the diversity and breadth of the interaction systems in which the Self participates.

In general, according to Mead's concept, human behavior is determined by the structure of his personality, his social role and the perception of the attitudes of the “generalized other”.

The role concept of personality developed by Mead was of significant importance. Thanks to it, the multidimensional behavior of a person can be represented (and analyzed) as a certain set of socially typical, stable patterns of his behavior - “roles” that a person plays in society. Moreover, the analysis of the “roles” of a person provides sufficient grounds for judging not only about his behavior, but also about his personality, since its internal impulsive and normative inconsistency is expressed in any behavioral acts.

The American sociologist A. Haller, in addition to the theory of J. Mead, developed the concept of "significant other". The "significant other" is the person whose approval the individual seeks and whose instructions he accepts. Such personalities have the greatest influence on the attitudes of individuals and on the formation of their own "I". The "significant others" could be parents, great teachers, mentors, some childhood playmates, and perhaps popular personalities. The individual seeks to accept their roles, imitate them and thus carry out the process of socialization through a "significant other" Frolov SS Sociology: Textbook. M.: 1999. P.187.

Recently, the largest developments in the theory of interactionalism are associated with the name of E Goffman (1922-1982), whose views occupy an intermediate position between the Chicago school and "role" theory. He often calls his concept the “dramatic approach”, which is expressed in the following analogy: roles - exectations that others have regarding our behavior in certain situations, are considered by him as plays that we play. He paid great attention to how we perform them and in what ways we manage our “performance” Gromov I.A., Matskevich A.Yu., Semenov V.A. Western theoretical sociology. - St. Petersburg, 1996. P.207.. All aspects of life - from deeply personal to public - are described in theatrical terms: a play, a stage, an actor, backstage, etc. Thus, E. Hoffman describes the process of interpreting “Presentation of one's “I” to others”, based on the Mead's constructions about “I” and “Mine”.

So, the theory of roles describes well the adaptive side of the process of socialization of the individual. But this scheme cannot be taken as the only true one, since it leaves the active, creative beginning of the personality in the shade.

2.2. Psychoanalytic theory of personality by Z. Freud

One of the leading ideological, theoretical and methodological foundations of Western psychology and sociology of the classical period, and especially its psychological direction, was the set of doctrines of S. Freud, which had a significant impact on all social thought.

The most significant part of Freud's psychoanalytic sociology is the doctrine of man, which is a set of different order concepts about the nature and essence of man, his psyche, the formation, development and structure of personality, the causes and mechanisms of human activity and behavior in various social communities.

According to Freud, the beginning and basis of a person's mental life are various instincts, drives and desires that are originally inherent in the human body.

Underestimating consciousness and the social environment in the process of formation and being of a person, Freud argued that various kinds of biological mechanisms play a leading role in organizing human life. In particular, he believed that every person from birth has incest (incest), cannibalism and a thirst for murder, which have a great influence on all mental activity of a person and his behavior. Freud insisted that the spiritual development of the individual will briefly repeat the course of the development of mankind due to the fact that in their mental structures each person bears the burden of experiences of distant ancestors.

According to Freud, two universal cosmic instincts play a particularly important role in the formation of a person in his life: Eros (sexual instinct, life instinct, self-preservation instinct) and Thanatos (death instinct, aggression instinct, destruction instinct / Freud 3. "I" and "It", Works of different years, Book 1, Tbilisi, 1991, p.380.

Representing human life as the result of the struggle of the two eternal forces of Eros and Thanatos, Freud believed that these instincts are the main engines of progress. The unity and struggle of Eros and Thanatos not only determine the finiteness of the existence of an individual, but also very significantly determine the activities of various social groups, peoples and states.

According to Freud's concept, the bearer of the sexual instinct is the universal mental energy that has a sexual coloration (libido), which is sometimes interpreted by him as the energy of sexual desire or sexual hunger.

The concept of libido plays a very important role. At the same time, Freud failed to develop an unambiguous interpretation of libido and, depending on certain turns of theoretical research, he interpreted libido in one sense or another.

In some cases, he spoke of libido as a quantitatively changing force and declared that we distinguish this libido from energy, which should generally be taken as the basis of mental processes. Freud 3. "I" and "It". Proceedings of different years. Book II. - Tbilisi, 1991, p. 82 .. In others, he argued that the libido in its deepest basis and in the final result is only a product of the differentiation of energy that acts in general in the psyche.

Unconscious (primarily sexual) aspirations of the individual form its potential and the main source of activity, set the motivation for its actions. Due to the impossibility of satisfying instinctive needs in their natural form due to social normative restrictions, a person is forced to constantly seek a compromise between a deep attraction and a socially acceptable form of its implementation. The personality model created by Freud is a three-level formation: the lower layer (It, or Id), represented by unconscious impulses and “ancestral memories”, the middle layer (I, or Ego) and the upper layer (Super-I, or Super-ego) - the norms of society, perceived by man. The most rigid, aggressive and militant layers are the id and the superego. They attack the human psyche from both sides, giving rise to a neurotic type of behavior. Since, as society develops, the upper layer (Super-Ego) inevitably increases, becomes more massive and heavy, then the whole human history is considered by Freud as the history of growing psychosis. A.N. Elsukova. Mn: Higher. school., 1997., S. 94..

Revealing the essence of Freud's concept, it should be noted that the scientist believed that the Oedipus complex also plays the most important role in the formation and vital activity of a person. Exploring the dreams of his patients, Freud drew attention to the fact that a significant part of them reported to him with indignation and indignation about dreams, the main motive of which was sexual intercourse with the mother (incest). Seeing a certain tendency in this, Freud comes to the conclusion that the first social impulse of a person is directed to the mother, while the first violent desire and hatred are directed to the father.

In the Oedipus complex, as Freud believed, “infantile sexuality is completed, which exerts a decisive influence on the sexuality of adults by its action. Every newborn has the task of overcoming the Oedipus complex, whoever is unable to do this falls ill with neurosis” Ibid. P.95..

Thus, the Oedipus complex is, according to Freud, the basis of human existence, while the three spheres of personality are in constant interaction and influence each other's functional activity. One of the most important relationships of this kind is the relationship of “It” and “I”.

The constant confrontation between the three spheres of personality is largely mitigated by special “defense mechanisms” (“protection mechanisms”) that have formed as a result of human evolution. The most important of the unconscious "protective mechanisms" designed to ensure a certain integrity and stability of the personality in the context of a conflict of conflicting impulses and attitudes, Freud considered "sublimation" (the process of converting and redirecting sexual energy into various forms of activity acceptable to the individual and society), “repression” (unconscious removal by an individual of the motives of his actions from the sphere of consciousness), “regression” (transition to a more primitive level of thinking and behavior), “projection” (unconscious transfer, “attribution” of his own sensations, ideas, desires, thoughts, desires and often “shameful”, unconscious aspirations for other people), “rationalization” (the unconscious desire of an individual to rationally justify his ideas and behavior, even in cases where they are irrational), “reactive formation ”(change of a trend unacceptable for consciousness to a more acceptable or opposite one), “fixation of behavior” (tendency of “I” to save e-ing of proven, effective stereotypes of behavior, a known change in which can lead to a pathological obsessive desire for repetition), etc. History of sociology (Under the general ed. A.N. Elsukova and others - Minsk: Higher School, 1997, p.95.

Insisting on the initial inconsistency and conflict of the spheres of the personality, Freud especially emphasized the dynamic moments of the being of the personality, which was the strength of his concept,

Giving importance to all spheres of the personality and the mechanism of their interaction, Freud, at the same time, sought to link many of his hypotheses and concepts with the theory of personality. An example of this is his concept of creativity and the doctrine of characters, which are really consistent with and complement his construction of personality.

It should be noted that the psychosociological theories of A. Adler, C. Jung, K. Horney, G. Sullivan, E. Fromm and others, adjoining psychoanalysis, also had a significant influence on the further development of modern psychology and sociology of personality. The concepts of these researchers were called neo-Freudian, since all of them in one way or another relied on the ideas of Z. Freud. For example, A. Adler (1870-1937), sociologizing psycho-analysis, as opposed to Freud, rejected the idea of dividing the personality into three instances (“It”, “I” and “Super-I”) and focused on the principle of personality unity and the primacy of social factors in human conduct. Adler considered social motives, social feelings as the basis of human existence, and the individual as an initially social being. History of Sociology (Under the general editorship of A.N. Elsukov, p.

K. Jung (1875-1961), having become acquainted with Freud's theory, supported his views in many ways. He actively developed psychoanalytic ideas and tried to put them into practice Jung K. Archetype and symbol. - M., 1991 .. Later, Jung moved away in many respects from traditional psychoanalysis and proposed his rather complex structure of the human psyche, in his opinion, it consists of four universal elements: personal consciousness, collective consciousness, personal unconscious and collective unconscious . By "collective unconscious" Jung meant "the mind of our earliest ancestors, the way they comprehended life and the world, gods and human beings."

Among Freud's ideas, which were thoroughly criticized by K. Horney (1885-1952), were, in particular, such fundamental elements of his teaching as the theory of instincts, the Oedipus complex, the concept of libido, etc. But Horney most sharply criticized Freud for overemphasizing the biological origin of psychic phenomena and for ignoring "cultural factors". According to Horney, the global principles that govern a person, determine his behavior, include the desire for security and the realization of one's own desires History of sociology (Under the general editorship of A, N. Elsukov, p.

Philosopher, psychoanalyst and sociologist E. Fromm (1900-1980), being well aware of the novelty and importance of Freud's ideas for the development of social cognition, carried out the most impressive reformation of psychoanalytic teaching, which greatly contributed to the growth of popularity as psychoanalysis proper, and psychosociological doctrines Ibid., p.229..

Exploring the role of mental factors in the activity of the individual, in various social processes, Fromm critically rethought a number of fundamental provisions of Freud's theory. Rejecting the thesis of “unchanging human nature” as a myth, Fromm argued that in the course of evolution a person partially loses his “immediate instinctive basis” and acquires new qualities determined by the social environment.

Fromm believed that “the most beautiful, as well as the ugliest inclinations of a person, do not follow from a fixed, biologically determined human nature, but arise as a result of the social process of personality formation ... Human nature - human passions and his anxieties - is a product of culture. ..” Fromm E. Escape from freedom. - M., 1990, p. 21 ..

As a result of an independent study of the history of human society, Fromm came to the conclusion that there are a number of social characters of people, which are the core of the character structure, which is inherent in most members of the same culture, in contrast to the individual character, which is different for people. the same culture. According to Fromm's teachings, “the socio-economic structure of society forms the social character of its members in such a way that they want to do what they should do” Fromm E. To have or to be? - M., 1986, p. 156.

Perhaps none of the neo-Freudians paid as much attention to the analysis of the position of the individual at various stages of the evolution of human society as Fromm, which greatly contributed to the enrichment of his teaching.

For the thinking part of the population in modern Russia, Fromm, as a thinker and humanist, is interesting for his approaches to assessing the crisis of the current Western capitalist society and ways to overcome it. Having made significant efforts to realize and debunk a number of dangerous social illusions, Fromm came to the conclusion that the causes of the crisis were predetermined by the economic and psychological contradictions of the industrial system itself. Paying tribute to its various achievements, Fromm at the same time critically analyzed the great promises and high hopes for limitless progress that were characteristic of several generations of the industrial age. Fromm's conclusion was unequivocal: great hopes for achieving material abundance, unlimited personal freedom, happiness for the greatest number of people and domination over nature collapsed. Civilization was on the verge of self-destruction.

Neo-Freudian doctrines were a direct consequence of ideas. and Z. Freud's concepts, which is his great merit to science.

2.3. Behavioral concept of personality

In accordance with the behavioral concept, the behavior of each person is conditioned and controlled by the social environment through language, customs, social institutions, mass media, etc. In particular, J. Homans took “elementary social behavior” (that is, direct contacts between individuals) as the initial unit of sociological analysis. An essential element of his sociology was the theory of social behavior. We have already mentioned some aspects of this theory above, now we will consider it in more detail.

A new understanding of the nature and essence of social behavior is explained by Homans in this way: “Social behavior is an exchange of values (both material and non-material, such as signs of approval or prestige). People who give a lot to others try to get a lot from them, and people who receive a lot from others are influenced by them to ensure that the latter can receive a lot from the former. Such a process of exerting influence tends to ensure equilibrium or balance between exchanges” Modern foreign social psychology. Texts. - M., 1984, S. 90 ..

Homans formulated the thesis about two levels of behavior, which he called subinstitutional (paired direct-personal relations) and institutional. The first is the basis of the second. At the same time, social behavior as an exchange is inherent in both levels. Some difference between them, according to Homans, is that in complex organizations activity is regulated not by primary, but by more complex rewards, and that the processes of exchange of “rewarding” activity themselves become more mediated. . Social norms are beginning to play an increasingly important role. Consequently, complex social organizations form equilibrium systems that stabilize through the institutionalization of a common normative structure. New directions in sociological theory. - M., 1978, p. 84 ..

Homans' explanation of social behavior through exchange turned out to be insufficiently correct in a number of ways. As noted in a number of critical works of the History of Sociology (Edited by A.N. Elsukov et al. - Mn., 1997, pp. 240-241., It remains unclear how the acting individual uses “external symbols” (including structural information about profession, age, income) in direct exchanges with others. In the same way, Homans does not explain how, in the course of interaction, an individual concludes what is happening. Despite this, in general, in modern Western In sociology, Homans's teaching is understood and interpreted for the study of traditional sociological problems and enjoys a certain influence.

We single out five main provisions that explain how Homans considers the process of exchange between individuals.

The first position - the position of success - consists in the fact that all human actions are subject to the basic rule: the more often a separate action of a person is rewarded, the more often he seeks to perform this action.

The second position - the position of the stimulus - describes the relationship between the stimulus of a successful action and its repetition. If any stimulus (or set of stimuli) led to an action that turned out to be successful, then in the event of a repetition of this stimulus, or a similar one, the person will seek to repeat the action.

The third position - the position of value - lies in the fact that the more foamy for a person to achieve a certain result, the more she will strive to perform an action aimed at achieving it.

The fourth position - the position of "satiation-starvation" - comes from the fact that the more often a person received a special reward in the past, the less foamy the repetition of such a reward will be for her.

The fifth position - the “aggression-approval” position - is characterized by the fact that if a person does not receive the reward he expected, or receives a punishment that he did not expect, then he seeks to demonstrate aggressive behavior, and the results of such behavior become for him more foamy. Conversely, if a person receives the expected reward, especially if it is more than what he expected, or does not receive the punishment that he expected, then he tends to demonstrate approved behavior and the results of such behavior become more foamy for him. .

This set of five positions, which Homans prefers to consider as a system, in his opinion, explains why a person acts one way or another in any situation. He tried to extrapolate these provisions to explain all social processes and believed that the relationship between groups and social organizations is not much different from the direct interaction between individuals.

In other words, considering the problem of personality, J. Homans, his predecessor (B. Skinner) assigned the main role to the system of “stimuli”, “reinforcements”, drawing a direct analogy between the behavior of humans and animals. Changes in personal behavior are derived from the process of learning, understood as the stimulation of "good", i.e. desired actions.

At the same time, like Homans, P. Blau postulated that when considering associations that include an explicit or hidden, profitable or expensive exchange of activities between two limes, an elementary economic model is used. In fact, he interprets social life as a kind of “bazaar”, where “actors” trade among themselves in order to extract the greatest benefit. History of sociology (Under the general editorship of A.N. Elsukov.

Blau's "principles" and "laws" can be formulated as follows: Turner J. The structure of sociological theory. -M., 1985, S.347-373.

Principle 1: The greater the benefit a person expects from another by engaging in a certain activity, the more likely he is to engage in that activity.

Principle 2. The more rewards a person has exchanged with another person, the more likely the occurrence of subsequent acts of exchange due to the mutual obligations that have arisen and direct them.

Principle 3. The more often mutual obligations are violated in the exchange, the less power the parties have, which are prone to negatively sanction those who violate the norms of reciprocity.

Principle 4. As the moment of reward, which is the result of a certain activity, approaches, this activity falls in price and the probability of its implementation decreases,

Principle 5. The more exchange relations are established, the more likely it is that the norms of “fair exchange” will govern these relations.

and others. By proposing a very original conception of the essence of society, Blau, perhaps, raised more problems than he solved them.

2.4. Cultural and historical concept of personality

Within the framework of the cultural-historical or active approach to the study of personality, an understanding of man as an active being has developed. The central category of analysis, which gives the key to understanding the personality, is the category “activity” . Activity can be defined as a specific type of human activity aimed at the knowledge and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including himself and the conditions of his existence. In activity, a person creates objects of material and spiritual culture, transforms his abilities, preserves and improves nature, builds society, creates something that without its activity could not exist. The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that thanks to it, he goes beyond his natural limitations, i.e. surpasses its own genotypic capabilities. Due to the productive, creative nature of his activity, a person creates sign systems, instruments of influence on himself and nature. Using these tools, he built a modern society, cities, machines, with their help he produced new commodities, material and spiritual culture, and ultimately transformed himself. The historical progress that has taken place over the past few tens of thousands of years owes its origin precisely to activity, and not to the improvement of the biological nature of people.

The motives of human activity can be different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual. As a rule, its product acts as a song of activity.

Activity is usually considered in the structural and functional aspects of Sociology (Under the editorship of V.N. Lavrinenko. - M., 1998, p. 232 .. The structural aspect involves clarifying the structure of the activity itself and determining its constituent elements. The functional aspect focuses on how activities are carried out.

The study of personality with an active approach comes down to the following:

Determination of the system-forming link, the dominant type of activity (professional, educational, entertainment, etc. /

Clarification of the principle of carrying out activities - forced or free, alienated or not alienated;

Studying the nature of the relationship between different types of activities (harmonious or disharmonious), the degree of their hierarchy;

Study of the level of implementation of each of the activities.

None of the above options for understanding the personality exhausts this phenomenon as a whole, each of them considers its individual manifestations, elevating them to the rank of the most important, fundamental. Until now, we cannot assert that by the end of the 20th century, science has created a sociological model of personality. This is probably a matter for the future.

In continuation of the conversation about the nature of human activity, one cannot fail to note the fact that it is not always positive and contributes to the progress of both the individual himself and society as a whole. This has been acknowledged by many sociologists and historians. An example is the theory of the so-called cultural-historical types, which arose as an attempt to overcome the shortcomings of the Eurocentric model of a unilinear and unidirectional historical process and explain the features of the development of the East and other regions of the world, including Russia. She sees the historical process as a multilinear parallel development of peculiar socio-cultural types of societies and civilizations. The founder of this theory is the Russian sociologist N.Ya. Danilevsky Danilevsky N, Ya. Russia and Europe.-M, 1991, p.222.

Along with the fact that the personality creates culture in the process of activity, cultural patterns Vygotsky L.S. Collected Works: In 6 T. - T.Z. - M., 1983. P. 125., cultural affiliation determines the nature of activities, rules, norms, values, etc.

G. Therborn notes, in particular, that people's preferences differ insofar as they belong to different cultures, from which they have learned different life goals and desires, specific norms of correct behavior, special ways of expressing emotions and owning them. This assumption in itself can serve as an explanation of human action Terborn G. Belonging to culture.// Theory of society (General ed. A.F. Filippov, pp. 83-84 ..

In addition, belonging to a culture means acquiring a certain cognitive and communicative competence, a certain language, a social horizon, a worldview or set of beliefs, a way to interpret or define situations, cope with uncertainty and send signals.

Another important aspect of the sociological understanding of belonging to a culture is that it is determined by two dimensions - the general feeling of the actor of his identity with some people and difference from others. This provision is supplemented by the presence of a similar feeling of “identity-differentiation” among other participants in the collective action. Ibid. pp. 84-85.

Concluding the conversation about different views on the process of personality formation, one cannot but mention the representatives of humanistic psychology. This branch of psychology arose as a kind of alternative to those concepts that completely or partially identified the psychology and behavior of humans and animals. Proponents of humanistic theories were primarily interested in how a person perceives, understands and explains real events in his life. They preferred to describe the phenomenology of personality rather than seek its explanation. The most famous representatives of this approach are A. Maslow, K. Rogers.

The basic human need, according to humanistic theories of personality, is self-actualization, the desire for self-improvement and self-expression. Self-actualization involves self-reliance, the presence of a person's independent, independent opinion on the main issues of life.

A.N. Leontiev and L.I. Bozhovich also made a significant contribution to solving the problem of personality. For example, the theory proposed by Bozhovich can be classified as psychodynamic, experimental, structural-dynamic, covering the period of personality development from early preschool age to adolescence and using internal properties and characteristics of a person to describe the personality.

E. Erickson singled out eight psychological crises in every person during his life:

1. Crisis of trust-mistrust (during the first year of life).

2. Autonomy versus doubt and shame (2-3 years of age).

3. The emergence of initiative as opposed to guilt (approximately from 3 to 6 years).

4. Hard work as opposed to an inferiority complex (7 - 12 years).

5. Personal self-determination as opposed to individual dullness and conformism (12 - 18 years).

6. Intimacy and sociability as opposed to personal psychological isolation (about 20 years).

7. Concern about raising a new generation as opposed to “diving into yourself” (between 30 and 60 years).

8. Life satisfaction as opposed to despair (over 60).

Despite the fact that factors of the physical environment and general cultural patterns of behavior in a separate social group have a certain influence on the formation of personality, the main factors that determine the process of personality formation are group experience and subjective unique personal experience.

2.5. Determining the Ways of Forming a New Model of Personal Behavior in Modern Russian Conditions

Before asking the question: what characteristics should a person have in modern Russian conditions, let us turn to the sociological views of M. Weber as the founder of the theory of modern capitalism.

Weber's Modern Capitalism - this is an inevitable consequence of the historical development of Europe, and there is no way back to patriarchal social structures and values Gromov IA, Matskevich A, Yu., Semenov VA, Western theoretical sociology. - St. Petersburg, 1996, p. 110 ..

Exploring the genesis of capitalism, Weber identified a central problem for himself: the origin of bourgeois industrial capitalism with its rational organization of free labor.

Weber gives a genesis and a deep analysis of the interconnected religious, economic, political, and other structures that form a special phenomenon - Western European capitalism as a cultural and historical value. Shpakova R. Max Weber and Wehringer Sombart on Western European capitalism) Soc. research - 1992. - № 12. For him, European capitalism is a way of life that has its own moral value, but at the same time a way of thinking, a special logic, the roots of which go back to European antiquity.

Capitalism has not yet become a way of life in Russia. The domestic socio-economic model, with a certain degree of conventionality, can be characterized as administrative-capitalist. Therefore, we have difficulties with the definition of an adequate model of personal behavior.

Weber showed that changes in the sphere of consciousness, the restructuring of value orientations and attitudes towards work can give impetus to the emergence and prosperity of society. Consequently, a complex of certain personal qualities can accelerate social development in one direction or another, or vice versa, hinder it.

Sociologists and psychologists identify a number of fairly stable behavioral stereotypes, personality complexes formed by the socialist system.

The paradox of the current situation in Russia, despite the reforms and transformations, the rejection of the socialist system, is that previously formed stereotypes and personal complexes continue to live in the public mind. Moreover, today the situation is characterized by a general deterioration of the political, economic and socio-psychological climate in the country. A person is faced with tasks that he is not able to solve in principle, since he was not prepared for their solution either by the established system of education, or by all the experience of his former life. We are seeing a massive loss of identity. The famous modern sociologist L.G. Ionin in the article “Identification and staging” Ionin L.G. Identification and staging (to the theory of sleep-cultural changes) () Sociological research. -1995, - No. 4.-S.Z, in particular, writes that from the point of view of the phenomenological loss of identification manifests itself as a loss of the ability to weight yourself so that the reactions of the outside world correspond to your intentions and expectations. A person sees that the world ceases to respond to his actions in an adequate way. Interaction partners who previously did not pose a problem now no longer “recognize” him. Man, as it were, ceases to be reflected in the mirror of the social world. And from a structural point of view, the loss of identification manifests itself as a non-compliance of behavior with the normative requirements of the social environment. At the same time, if in the USSR of the 60-80s the loss of identification was mainly due to political and ideological reasons, today, at the end of the 90s, there is a massive loss of identification, already on the scale of the whole society; This loss is no longer based on ideological reasons, or, shall we say, not only ideological ones. Today we are witnessing a situation where most of the institutions of identification have either been destroyed or have changed their content, for which our society turned out to be completely unprepared. A paradoxical thing is happening: those who, back in the 60-80s, expressed their protest against the totalitarian system and took part in the formation of non-standard cultural models, today turned out to be not ready to identify themselves with today's realities.

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Personality formation

Features of the relationship between the individual and society. The formation and development of personality is a problem of modern psychology and sociology. Role concept of personality. Psychoanalytic theory of personality Z. Freud. Cultural and historical concept of personality.

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The loss of identification, notes Ionin, presupposes the restoration of a holistic and orderly image of the world, even if it is different than before. But in Russian conditions, such a restoration could not be carried out by joining one of the alternative cultural forms or models, since in the USSR there was no other, except for the Soviet, cultural model, which would be represented by the relevant institutions and at the same time quite widely. widespread and influential. Ionin L.G., Identification and staging (on the theory of socio-cultural changes) (/ Sonis. - 1995. - No. 4. - p.5.

However, alternative cultural forms and models did exist. Further, the researcher himself admits that “embryos” and various cultural forms existed in the country. By “embryos” he understands a cultural form in an “unfolded” state, existing as a set of ideas and behavioral prescriptions, which, for one reason or another, has not found a consistent embodiment in practical behavior.

As a rule, the logic of the formation and deployment of cultural forms is as follows. First, social interest is formed. It is realized, and then spontaneously or purposefully, in the form of group folklore or in the works of writers and philosophers, the doctrinal formulation of this interest is formed. The doctrine serves as the basis for its material and behavioral manifestations in various spheres of life: in politics, law, everyday life, leisure. Idols or heroes (politicians, poets, musicians, etc.) act as objects of identification. Who can be called an idol in Russia today? Or who do we revere as idols, heroes? The question is almost rhetorical. Thus, an identity crisis has poured in, which is unlikely to be resolved in the foreseeable future.

N.F. Naumova in the article “Life strategy of a person in a transitional society” Naumova N.F. The life strategy of a person in a transitional society (/ Sociological magazine. - 1995. - No. 2.-p.32. writes that the constant violation of the balance of interests creates in the individual the feeling that his social security is decreasing, and three human reactions to such a violation.The first is the strengthening of the orientation towards individual vertical mobility, towards individual survival (“every man for himself”) The second is the strengthening of the so-called group egoism, i.e. attempts to protect individual interests through group interests, and by any means: from informal to violent, criminal.The third is the strengthening of the spontaneous process of social comparison, as a result of which aggressive types of behavior arise.They are based not so much on the absolute deterioration of one's own position, but on what is assessed as unfair, undeserved improving the situation of others.

These reactions inevitably give rise to social conflicts in society. V.S. Semenov V.S. Semenov Russia in the network of conflict: between an explosion and consent (/ Sociological research. -1993. - No. 7. - p. 73. notes, in particular, that among the factors influencing conflict in society, the main role is played by contradictions between the three main structures of society and within them.We are talking about power (legislative, executive, judicial), entrepreneurship (state, collective, private, Russian-foreign, speculative, mafia, etc.) and manufacturers (various groups of intelligentsia , employees, workers, peasants, farmers, students, labor veterans, etc.).

Contradictions increase every year, become more acute and gradually take the form of social antagonisms. The antagonistic contradiction expressed itself primarily in the confrontation between the supporters of the socialist and capitalist paths of development. This contradiction has become the core of all. spheres of life in our country, the impulse of tough and irreconcilable conflicts, the object of political manipulation. The bulk of the working people enter into open conflicts with the administration, seeing it as the source of all their troubles and hardships.

It should also be said about the domestic bourgeoisie. It is only being formed as a class, but its conflict with other classes and social groups unfolds around the distribution of loans, privatization mechanisms, tax legislation, and so on. Today, each group of industrialists and entrepreneurs at all levels (in the center and regions) seeks to realize their interests, using pressure on the executive and legislative authorities.

The country has become a field of action of social conflicts, starting with interethnic and ending with mass social conflicts, manifested in many strikes. Moreover, the main focus of the strike movement is mainly the struggle to improve the standard of living. Andreenkova N.B., Voronchenkova G.A. The development of labor conflicts in Russia during the transition to a market economy () Sociological research. - 1993. - No. 8.-p.25.

Under the current conditions for Russian society, the reintegration of sociocultural values, the formation of common value orientations based on morality and rationalism, can become a vector for overcoming the current crisis. Without this, neither shifts in power (which we have observed over the past two years), nor Western dollar injections, nor the most democratic political and economic structures, taken by themselves, regardless of their value content, will help us.

The advancement of ideals that are not supported by socio-cultural values does not allow one to "jump" to post-industrialism, bypassing the necessary historical period of maturation of values that are adequate to the transition process. Sociocultural values can be affirmed in ideological, behavioral and material forms. The absence in the country of the prerequisites for their perception by individuals at the behavioral and material levels leads to the fact that Western experience comes to us in distorted forms.

Social and moral ideals and values should become the core of the human personality, but we see that real life is far from ideal. Multifactorial and multilevel relationships and interactions of a person with the environment are always very complex and fraught with collisions. In the modern critical historical period, which itself is a global extreme social situation extended in time, these relationships and interactions often go out of the necessary mobile balance, break all the foundations of human life and create massive stressful conditions. The problem is that the solution of all the most difficult and painful issues of society in a legal, non-violent way can be carried out if there is a sufficiently high civil and legal self-awareness of all segments of the population. According to many scientists and researchers, this problem will become almost insoluble for our society. Chalidze V. Law and imaginative thinking () Man. - 1990 . - No. 3. - p.85.

One thing is obvious, the way out of the crisis can occur with the formation of an effective mechanism of social control that ensures the dominance of post-industrial values, their general recognition by the population (which requires its consolidation at the ideological level) and the restoration of the main agents of socialization.

The target orientation of youth policy should be the conditions for the formation, development and social demand for the personal potential of young people, self-determination and the realization of creative opportunities, the creation of favorable economic and legal guarantees that can improve the quality of life of the youth population (not to the detriment of the life of other groups and strata of society). ). In this sense, the law of exaltation and spiritualization of the goals of life of new generations should become a guideline for youth policy, because the problems of positive socialization and self-realization of young people cannot be solved outside the general process of spiritual and moral development of Russian society. Youth in the framework of such a policy should be considered as the main subject and resource of current and future changes. Support for various associations of social and personal significance deserves special attention, which should become a priority of state policy - both due to the objective possibilities of associations in individualization and social integration,

and in connection with the perception by young people of leisure associations as a significant form of self-expression, self-realization, recognition.

In organizational and managerial terms, youth policy should be based on the optimal combination of regulation and self-organization, direct and feedback links, on overcoming the philosophy of economic determinism and building the optimal ratio of social, economic and spiritual factors of society development.

The priority areas of state youth policy should be the following: the formation of national self-consciousness, spiritual, moral, civic and patriotic education of youth (which will help the self-identification of young people in modern Russia /; ensuring social guarantees for obtaining a full-fledged education (creating mechanisms for identifying, supporting and the demand for the potential of intellectually gifted young people /; promotion of employment, vocational guidance, vocational training and retraining of personnel (which will increase the level of competitiveness and professional activity of young people in the labor market; will contribute to vocational training and reduce unemployment; weakening criminogenic manifestations in the field of entrepreneurship ); state support for a young family; the formation of physical, culture and healthy lifestyles of young people, the preservation and development of children's, teenage and youth physical culture clubs, amateur associations; organization of youth leisure; social support and protection of the rights of youth; prevention of offenses among the youth; support for children's and youth public organizations, initiatives of young people.

Of the priorities outlined above, the most important are leisure and education, through which the conditions for the implementation of all other priorities are focused. World experience shows that the leaders of world development are countries that are able to provide a high level of culture and education of young people.

It should also be noted that today a fundamentally different view of youth policy is required in the sense that it must take into account the emergence of a new social and political reality - non-state youth policy - and its relationship with state policy.

In 1998, in particular, in St. Petersburg, the Legislative Assembly adopted the Law “On Youth and Youth Policy of St. Petersburg”, which enshrined guarantees of legal and social protection of youth, defined common goals, concepts, procedures, principles and forms of youth support and implementation of the youth policy of St. Petersburg with the participation of public authorities of the city, citizens, organizations, youth and children's public associations.

In accordance with Article 3 of the Law, the protection of the rights of young people in St. Petersburg is ensured by:

1/ the adoption by the state authorities of St. Petersburg of regional minimum social standards and norms based on the state minimum social standards and the provision of a guaranteed minimum of social services for young citizens in education, upbringing, physical and spiritual and moral development, health protection, professional training;

2/ granting the right to young citizens, youth, children's associations, associations (unions) to participate in the preparation and implementation of targeted programs in the field of youth policy in St. Petersburg;

3/ providing targeted social assistance to low-income students and full-time students of institutions of higher and secondary vocational education;

4/ the implementation by the state authorities of St. Petersburg of measures to prevent unreasonable reduction in the number of institutions providing support to young people;

5/ licensing organizations providing social services to youth.

Article 4 of the Law defines employment guarantees for young people in St. Petersburg. They are provided:

1/ the creation of additional jobs, specialized student places for minors, as well as the establishment of quotas for organizations in accordance with federal law for the employment of graduates of institutions of secondary vocational education, as well as persons under 18 who are in special need of social protection;

2/ development of the urban system of vocational guidance for young people;

3/ support for the activities of non-governmental organizations that promote youth employment in St. Petersburg;

4/ facilitating the activities of centers for the social and labor rehabilitation of disabled youth, orphans and children left without parental care, and others.

State authorities assume obligations to ensure the spiritual, moral and physical development of young people, which is provided for in Article 8 of the Law of St. Petersburg on Youth and Youth Policy. Ensuring such development is carried out in the following forms:

1/ support for public initiatives that create favorable conditions for the formation among young citizens of the ideals of civic patriotism, democracy, as well as a healthy lifestyle based on historical, cultural and spiritual values, traditions in accordance with the goals of the social policy of Russia and St. Petersburg;

2/ development of the material and technical base of health-improving institutions for young people and institutions that ensure the organization of leisure activities for young people at their place of residence;

3/ development of international youth exchanges within the framework of international humanitarian, educational, scientific and technical programs;

4/ providing organizational and financial impact to holding mass city youth holidays and festivities based on the continuity of the best cultural and historical traditions of St. Petersburg and instilling in young people the skills of active, creative leisure.

This set of tasks can be successfully solved only if the state youth policy purposefully creates conditions conducive to minimizing and resolving the problems and contradictions of socialization, social integration of the younger generation, and provides this process with a legislative framework and resources.

CONCLUSION

The presentation of the main content of the thesis research allows us to draw some generalizing conclusions, the most important of which are as follows:

1. The primary agent of social interaction and relations in society is the individual. The “personality as an object” system appears as a certain system of scientific concepts that reflect the most significant properties of normative requirements imposed by social communities on their members. Personality as a subject of social relations is characterized by autonomy, a certain degree of independence from society, capable of opposing itself to society. At the same time, personal independence is associated with the ability to dominate oneself, and this, in turn, implies the presence of self-awareness in the individual, i.e. ability to. introspection, self-assessment, self-control.

2. The focus of sociological thought has always been and remains the problem of interaction between the individual, the social group and society as a whole. The real solution to the main question of psychology and sociology about the priority of the individual or society lies not in isolation, and even more so not in opposing one to the other, but in organizing their close and harmonious interaction. There is not and cannot be the improvement of society outside the improvement of the individual, just as there is not and cannot be the free and comprehensive development of the individual outside and independently of a truly civilized society.

3. An analysis of the current state of world psychological and sociological thought has shown that it is represented by a wide variety of different approaches and concepts, personality theories, incl. role concept, psychoanalytic theory of personality, cultural-historical concept, behavioral concept and others.

At the same time, none of the options for understanding the phenomenon of personality given in this work exhausts it entirely, each of them considers only its individual manifestations, elevating them to the rank of the most important, fundamental. We cannot assert that by the end of the 20th century science has created a unified socio-psychological model of personality.

4. Given the variety of interpretations of the phenomenon of personality, it seems very relevant to deeply study the features of the formation and development of personality in various cultures and social communities.

The process of socialization of the individual in Russia has its own specifics. The following factors influence the process of personality formation:

I) unfavorable political and socio-economic situation;

2) the growth of the social and spiritual autonomy of the younger generation;

3) violation of the mechanism of cultural continuity, the inability of traditional social institutions to relieve social tension, reproduce the social qualities of a person and culture as a historically stable integrity;

4) crisis of national ideology;

5) high level of conflict in society;

b) mass loss of socio-cultural identity;

7) falling living standards of the population;

8) mass unemployment;

9) a wide range of phenomena of social pathology, etc.

5. The way out of the crisis in Russian society can occur due to the reintegration of socio-cultural values, the formation of common value orientations for various social groups based on morality and rationalism.

In the foreseeable future, our society will most likely have three systems of socio-cultural values: industrial-traditional, post-industrial, pseudo-values of Western society. The absence in the country today of a generally recognized system of values and institutionalized means of achieving them causes a crisis of socialization and is the main cause of social anomie in society.

Particular emphasis should be placed on youth policy, which should create conditions for the formation, development and social demand for the personal potential of young people, create favorable economic and legal guarantees that will help improve the quality of life of young people.

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Man- a biosocial being, the highest level of the animal type.

Individual- an individual person.

Sociology considers a person not as a biological organism, but as a social phenomenon - a social entity.
"Man" is a concept denoting a certain type of living nature. "Human individual" - refers to a separate representative of the human species, a certain part of the human community.
At the same time, each person has his own special individual features that distinguish him from the human community.

Individuality- a special combination in a person of the natural and the social, inherent in a specific, single individual, distinguishing him from others. Each person is individual, figuratively speaking, has his own face, which is expressed by the concept of “personality”

at the time of birth, the child is not yet a person. He is just an individual.

Personality is the object of study in a number of humanities, primarily philosophy, psychology and sociology. At the same time, it should be noted that the more primitive a society, the greater the similarity between its constituent individuals. And vice versa, the more developed and democratic it is, the more opportunities its members have to develop their individuality. Consequently, a person is a product of social life, which actively forms its consciousness and attitude towards the world around it. And this process is carried out by a person throughout his life. At different stages of his life, a person is influenced by various socializing (personality-forming) factors.
At the initial stages of his life, the main socializing factors for a person and his personality are parents, family, preschool institutions, neighbors, etc.
Then - the collectives of educational institutions, where a person, friends, groups of peers, acquaintances study. Further - the labor collective, professional groups, relationships with various kinds of communities.
Obviously, a person throughout his life forms and changes his consciousness, socializes, acquiring new social qualities, developing and improving. The following stages of personality socialization are distinguished: social adaptation and internalization.
Social adaptation is the adaptation of an individual to the social environment, and internalization is the process of entering into the inner world of a person values, social rules, laws, norms.
People throughout their lives are included in countless groups and, interacting, experience their socializing influence and the socializing influence of society as a whole. At the same time, a person actively influences the social and natural environment of his existence, actively transforming them according to his needs.
Therefore, it can be argued that a person is not only a product of social life, but also its active subject.
Consequently, socialization is the process of assimilation by a person of social norms, rules, laws, patterns of behavior, values (in the broadest sense - culture) of the society in which the person carries out his life activity.
The process of socialization provides an opportunity for people, mastering the culture of society, to freely communicate through the development of roles. In the process of functioning in various communities, a person acquires many specific properties and qualities due to the characteristics of these communities.

Thus, system "personality as an object" appears as a certain system of scientific concepts reflecting some essential properties of the normative requirements imposed by social communities on their members.

Personality as a subject social relations, first of all, is characterized by autonomy, a certain degree of independence from society, capable of opposing itself to society. Personal independence is associated with the ability to dominate oneself, and this, in turn, implies that the individual has self-awareness, i.e. not just consciousness, thinking, but the ability to introspection, self-esteem, self-control.

Social personality type- this is a reflection of the totality of recurring essential social qualities of individuals included in any social community

According to K. Marx, a person is not only a subject, but also an object of social development. Its life activity is determined by society in the form of social conditions of existence, the heritage of the past, the objective laws of history. Personality influences the course of historical development through practice, mastering the objective world in the process of labor, its transformation.